Abstract
At the twentieth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in 1956 Khrushchev not only denounced the errors and excesses of Stalin but proclaimed a new era in Soviet history to be characterised by economic progress at home and increased influence abroad against a background of peaceful coexistence with states of different social systems. The years which followed were marked by a striking contrast between the absence of fundamental internal changes and an increasing flexibility in foreign policy and military strategy. Khrushchev’s promises of substantial improvements in agriculture and industry which would enable the Soviet Union to overtake the United States by the 1980s were certainly not fulfilled. Political dissent was still repressed. Despite theoretical constitutional and legal advances, in practice individual rights against the state remained minimal. There has been no opening up of the political system. The Politbureau of the Central Committee and its supporting Secretariat have maintained a monopoly of initiative and a totality of control over every aspect of national life. On occasions of divisions within the leadership, such as those which followed the death of Stalin in 1953, or those which led to Khrushchev’s fall in 1964, the larger Central Committee, with a membership approximating 300, has played some part in bringing about change, but once the new leadership had been installed, the 14/15 man Politbureau reasserted its total control.
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Notes and References
Pethybridge (1966) is a good introduction to Stalinism and Khrushchev’s reforms as seen at the time, and has a useful bibliography. See also N. S. Khrushchev, ‘Speech to the Twentieth Party Congress of the CPSU’, published by the Manchester Guardian in 1956. The Brezhnev succession and the problems of reform are analysed in Colton (1986).
Mackintosh (1962) is still the best introduction. Keeble (1985) covers more recent developments.
Baylis and Segal (1982) is a series of essays with full reference to the specialist literature. Holloway (1983) is a masterly exposition, MccGwire (1987) a controversial one.
R. Lowenthal, ‘The Soviet Union in the Post-Revolutionary Era: an Overview’ in Dallin and Larson (1968) p. 1.
Carew Hunt (1957) and Schapiro (1970) provide an excellent background.
Ranft (1972). Gorbachev (1986) pp. 106–114.
V. Aspaturian, ‘Foreign Policy Perspectives in the Sixties’ in Dallin and Larson (1968) pp. 132–3.
Lowenthal, op. cit. in Dallin and Larson (1968) pp. 3–6. Also D. R. Kelley, ‘The Communist Party’ in Kelley (1980) p. 29.
W. Leonhard, ‘Politics and Ideology in the Post-Khruschev Era’ in Dallin and Larson (1968) pp. 54–6.
D. R. Kelley, ‘Developments in Ideology’ in Kelley (1980) pp. 185–7; based on Brezhnev’s speech to the Supreme Soviet as reported in Pravda, 5 October 1977.
Kelley, ibid., pp. 194–5.
R. Sharlet, ‘Constitutional Implementation and the Juridicization of the Soviet System’ in Kelley (1980) pp. 200–7. For Brezhnev’s appointments and the text of the Constitution see Keesing’s Contemporary Archives (1977) vol. XXIII, pp. 28483–4, 28701–9.
The Current Digest of the Soviet Press, vol. XXXIII, no. 8 of 25 March 1981 and no. 9 of 1 April 1981 (Columbus Ohio: The American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies).
Current Digest of the Soviet Press, vol. XXXVII, No 9, 27 March 1985 reported his speech at the Central Committee plenum on 12 March. Reports of his speeches at the plenums of 23 April 1985 and 28 January 1987 are in BBC’s Summary of World Broadcasts, Part I, the USSR for 25 April 1985 and 28–29 January 1987. His speeches at the 27th Congress are in Gorbachev (1986).
Digest of the Soviet Press, vol. XXXVII, 27 March 1985.
For Gorbachev’s attitude to ideology, the leading role of the Party, democratic centralism and the armed forces, see Gorbachev (1986), especially pp. 6–8, 69–70, 78–9, 97–120; also BBC’s Summary of World Broadcasts, Part I, the USSR, 29 January 1987.
Colton (1979) p. 3.
Mackintosh (1967) gives the background.
This and what immediately follows is based on two most valuable recent studies: Colton (1979) and Deane (1977).
Deane (1977) pp. 69–93.
Ibid., pp. 281–3.
Ibid., pp. 76–7, 95–127, 139, 213, 229, 233. Williams (1987) pp. 3–76.
Deane (1977), pp. 217–18.
Colton (1979) p. 118.
Ibid., pp. 48–9.
Ibid., pp. 27, 245; Mackintosh (1987).
Deane (1977) pp. 268–73; J. Erickson, ‘Recruitment Patterns for the Leadership’ in Bertram (1980) p. 78.
Mackintosh (1987); The Times (London), 18 June 1987; Gorbachev (1986), pp. 78–9.
Keesing’s, op. cit. (1977) p. 28703.
Nove (1977), Hutchings (1971) and (1976) give the background.
G. Sokoloff, ‘Sources of Soviet Power; Economy, Population, Resources’ in Bertram (1980) pp. 71–7.
R. Davy, ‘Russia in the Eighties: What the West Can Expect’, The Times, 9 October 1978; ‘Russia in the 1980s: the Giant Grows Sluggish’, The Economist, 29 December 1979; Sokoloff, op. cit. in Bertram (1980) pp. 32–61.
The following analysis is based on The Current Digest of the Soviet Press, vol. XXXIII, no. 8, 25 March 1981, pp. 3–21.
Ibid., pp. 3–6.
Ibid., pp. 14–21.
Ibid.
Gorbachev (1986), pp. 28–68
Colton (1986) and Timmerman (1986) give good analyses of Gorbachev’s aims and difficulties.
G. R. Feiwel, ‘Economic Performance and Reforms in the Soviet Union’ in Kelley (1980) pp. 70–103. This should be consulted for all problems of the Soviet economy in the 1970s and 1980s.
The Military Balance 1987–8 (London: IISS, Autumn 1987) contains full details of the Soviet Union’s armed forces and defence expenditure.
Nove (1977) pp. 239–40, 350–1; P. Hanson, ‘Estimating Soviet Defence Expenditure’ in Soviet Studies, vol. XXX, no. 3, July 1978, pp. 143–50, The Military Balance 1987–8, p. 33.
Krylov (1979) pp. 61–3. This comprehensive survey is based on Russian sources.
D. Holloway, ‘Foreign and Defence Policy’ in Brown and Kaser (1975) pp. 64–5. M. Kaser’s ‘The Economy: a General Assessment’ and ‘The Economy in 1977’ in this book are particularly useful, as is Holloway (1983).
R. Hutchings, ‘The Economic Burden of the Soviet Navy’ in MccGwire (1973a) pp. 210–27.
M. MccGwire, ‘The Economic Costs of Forward Deployment’, ibid., pp. 137–44.
J. McDonnell, ‘The Soviet Defence Industry as a Pressure Group’ in MccGwire (1975) pp. 87–122. Also D. Holloway, ‘Soviet Military Research and Development: Managing the Research Production Cycle’ in Thomas and Kruse-Vaucienne (1977) pp. 189–229.
Kelley (1980) p. 189, Hutchings (1976) p. 41, Holloway (1983).
Holloway, Soviet Military Research and Development, op. cit., p. 210; Krylov (1979) p. 62.
Mackintosh (1987), pp. 3–4.
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© 1989 Bryan Ranft and Geoffrey Till
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Ranft, B., Till, G. (1989). The Framework. In: The Sea in Soviet Strategy. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-09464-6_2
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