Abstract
Civil (or vital) registration refers to the process by which facts regarding individual civil or vital events are recorded by some governmental agency as official records. Vital events may be defined as live births, deaths, stillbirths, marriages, divorces and adoptions. The records serve two purposes: (1) individual records establish a person’s civil status and the facts on which it is based, (2) the information on the registration records form the data for vital statistics, which are the computed birth rates, marriage rates, general death rates and other indices showing changes in population size and composition.
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2.4 Bibliography 2.4.1 Further Reading
A general and extensive guide to the handling of mortality statistics was provided by WHO (1977a). This covers sources and collection of the basic data, but concentrates upon analysis; there are chapters on measures of mortality, life tables, childhood mortality, analysis over time, differential mortality and problems with various causes of death.
Other reviews of the uses of mortality statistics are: Angrist (1958), Wagner and Newcomb (1970), Alderson (1974), Adelstein (1978), Kinlen (1980) and Makannah (1984).
2.4.2 Validity of Cause of Death and Associated Items
An indication of the concern about the limitations of mortality statistics was provided in a report by UN (1963). This proposed that data on cause of death might be usefully grouped into only five main categories: (1) infectious and parasitic diseases; (2) cancer; (3) cardiovascular disease and bronchitis over the age of 5; (4) violence; (5) other causes. Use of such broad categories can be justified in an attempt to avoid the difficulty with finer subgrouping where there has been a change in diagnostic fashion, diagnostic accuracy, terminology and transfer between categories for other reasons. However, aggregation to this extent may conceal very different trends for various specific diseases; it will also combine conditions with quite different aetiologies.
A joint United Nations/WHO meeting (WHO, 1970a) pointed out that at that time only about 34 per cent of the world’s population was covered by routine mortality statistics. It stressed the importance of extending this coverage and the need to build in some routine evaluation to existing systems. The meeting suggested that it was important to check the completeness and the accuracy of the non-diagnostic and the diagnostic data.
2.4.2.1 Comparison of Clinical History with Death Certificate
In addition to the studies reviewed in the text, the following warrant consideration: Dorn and Cutler (1958)—deaths from cancer in the US; Schwartz (1977)—715 deaths in Honolulu suggested an overall error of 20 per cent in death certificates; Clarke and Whitfield (1978)—in 191 deaths of persons under the age of 50 in Great Britain, there was a major discrepancy in 20.4 per cent.
2.4.2.2 Comparison of Autopsy with Clinical Diagnosis
Swartout (1934), Swartout and Webster (1940), Pohlen and Emerson (1943), James et al. (1955), Munck (1952), Gruver and Freis (1957).
Rigdon and Kirchoff (1963)—100 autopsies and 194 deaths from cancer in two US hospitals.
Justin-Besancon et al. (1963)—1000 consecutive autopsies in France in 1958–61.
Howell (1966)—50 deaths in persons over the age of 80.
Jablon et al. (1966)—follow-up of atomic bomb survivors, with 1215 autopsies in 1950–62. Varying discrepancy, depending on cause of death.
Wilson (1966)—265 deaths in London; 7 per cent of diagnoses totally wrong.
Holler and de Morgan (1970)—212 deaths in US; 8 per cent had major discrepancy.
Rossman et al. (1974)—250 consecutive autopsies in a Jewish hospital in New York.
Marshall (1970)—1000 coroners’ autopsies in Northern Ireland; 11 per cent showed major errors.
Abramson et al. (1971)—476 deaths in Israel showed marked limitations in reporting of cardiovascular disease, peptic ulcer and liver cirrhosis.
Britton (1974a,b)—384 autopsies indicated errors in 30 per cent of diagnosis. Fewer errors occurred under the age of 70, and malignant disease was seldom incorrect.
Gwynne (1976)—534 deaths in Dunedin in 1971–73 showed errors in 57.5 per cent.
Burrows (1975)—252 adult deaths indicated errors in 22 per cent.
Virkkunen et al. (1975)—600 medicolegal deaths in Helsinki indicated errors in 29.5 per cent.
Green and Donald (1976)—248 deaths in women under 50 in an Australian
hospital in 1969–73. Comparison with death certificates for another group is difficult to interpret.
Hartveit (1977)—742 deaths in Bergen in 1975 indicated errors in 19 per cent.
Engel et al. (1980)—257 deaths in an Atlanta hospital in 1970 showed discrepancies in 11 per cent.
Cameron et al. (1980)—154 autopsies in Edinburgh in 1978 confirmed the diagnosis in 85 per cent.
Clarke and Whitfield (1982)—471 dying in Great Britain in 1978–79; 7.0 per cent had no clear clinical diagnosis and there were major discrepancies in 4.2 per cent.
Mercer and Talbot (1985)—400 hospital deaths in Leicester in 1982–84; autopsy confirmed the clinical diagnosis in only 46.7 per cent.
Kircher et al. (1985)—272 deaths in Connecticut in 1980 indicated major disagreement in 29 per cent.
2.4.2.3 Specific Causes of Death
Alderson (1981a) has reviewed the literature on validity of mortality statistics and the following indicates those publications that are relevant to specific causes of death. This bibliography is ordered as the ICD.
Infectious and Parasitic Disease
Cholera Stocks (1950)
Diphtheria WHO (1951b)
Influenza Collins and Lehman (1953)
Malaria WHO (1951c)
Measles WHO (1951d)
Meningococcal meningitis Lambert (1973), Goldacre (1977)
Scarlet fever WHO (1954a)
Syphilis Nicoli and Bellows (1934), Hare (1972), Martin (1972)
Tuberculosis Ash (1915), Springett (1950, 1971), Horwitz and Palmer (1954), Khowri (1971)
Typhus WHO(1951e)
Typhoid and paratyphoid WHO (1951f)
Whooping cough WHO (1951g)
Neoplasms
General papers include: Greenwood and Wood (1914), MacDonald (1938), WHO (1952a, 1955a), Dorn and Cutler (1958), Waaler and Grimsetvedt (1958), Barclay and Phillips (1962), Haenszel et al. (1962), Lombard et al. (1962), Beadenkopf et al. (1963), Hastbacka and Saxen (1963), Gwynne (1965), Steinitz and Costin (1971), Bauer and Robbins (1972), Lehtonen and Saxen (1972),
Lilienfeld et al (1972), Rosenblatt et al. (1973), Erlich et al. (1975), Steer et al (1976), Knight (1977), Murphy (1977), Engel et al. (1980), Percy et al (1981) and Nelson et al. (1987).
Colorectal cancer Vellacott and Ferro (1984)
Lung cancer Kennaway (1936), WHO (1952c), Registrar General (1957a), Gilliam (1955), McKenzie (1956), Bonser and Thomas (1959), Newhouse and Wagner (1969), Barchielli and Geddes (1986)
Mesothelioma Lilienfeld and Gunderson (1986)
Bone cancer McKenzie et al. (1961)
Breast cancer Brinkley et al. (1984)
Uterus cancer Murphy (1967), Weiss (1978), Alderson and Donnan (1978)
Hodgkin’s diseaseWHO (1955b)
Endocrine, Nutritional and Metabolic Diseases
Addison’s disease Mason et al. (1968)
Diabetes WHO (1955c), Lombard and Joslin (1958), Westlund (1966), Trowell (1974), Warren and Corfield (1973), Tokuhata et al. (1975), Jarrett and Colwell (1982), O’Sullivan and Mahon (1982), Fuller (1985), Fuller et al. (1983) Thyroid diseaseGreenwald (1965, 1967, 1968, 1970, 1973)
Diseases of the Nervous System
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosisHoffman and Brody (1971)
Epilepsy WHO(1955d)
Multiple sclerosis Kurland and Moriyama (1951), Acheson (1972), Agranoff and Goldberg (1974), O’Malley et al (1987)
Parkinson’s disease Brown and Knox (1972), Duvoisin and Yahr (1872)
Alzheimer’s disease Fox et al (1985)
Circulatory System
There is a very extensive body of literature on various aspects of the validity of mortality statistics for cardiovascular disease. The following notes list method studies first, and then those dealing with particular diagnoses within the broad category of cardiovascular disease.
DiagnosisWoolsey and Moriyama (1948), Moriyama et al (1966), Stocks (1969), Beral (1976), Guberan (1979)
Certification Saver and Enterline (1959), Robb-Smith (1967), Anderson and Le Riche (1970), Deutscher et al (1971), WHO, Regional Office for Europe (1973), Clayton et al (1977), McMichael (1979)
Coding Benjamin (1968a), Stocks (1969)
Classification Cooper et al. (1978)
Comparison with clinical details Peterson (1974), Najem et al. (1975)
Autopsy studies Jackson (1896), Worth et al. (1975)
Rheumatic fever Quinn et al. (1970)
Hypertension Lambert (1975)
Ischaemic heart diseaseSpain et al. (1960), Beadenkopf et al. (1963), Skyring et al. (1963), Garcia-Palmieri et al. (1965), Kuller et al. (1966, 1967), Walford (1971), Penttilla and Ahonen (1975), Samuelson et al. (1979), Dobson et al. (1983), Gillum (1984), Mcllwaine et al. (1985), Stehbens (1987) Bacterial endocarditis Rose (1966)
Cerebrovascular diseaseBronte-Stewart and Pickering (1959), Kagan et al. (1976), Kruger et al. (1967), Larsson (1967), Schoenberg and Powell (1968), Florey et al. (1969), Kuller et al. (1969), Acheson et al. (1973), WHO, Regional Office for Europe (1973), Corwin et al. (1982), Norris and Hachinski (1982), Peach (1985)
Pulmonary embolism and DVT Gorham (1961), Teviotdale and Gwynne (1967), Modan et al. (1972), Rossman (1974), Dismuke and Vander Zwaag (1984)
Respiratory System
Collins and Lehman (1953), Hewitt (1956), Office of Health Economics (1963), Markush (1968), Markush (1969)
Asthma Inman and Adelstein (1969), British Thoracic Association (1984), Sears et al. (1986a)
Chronic bronchitisAnderson (1968), Mitchell et al. (1971), Kelson and Heller (1983), Farebrother et al. (1985)
Diseases of the Digestive System
Peptic ulcer Morris and Titmus (1944), Susser and Stein (1962), Benjamin (1968a), Meade et al. (1968), Kirata et al. (1983)
Cirrhosis Hallen and Norden (1964), Duffy and Dean (1971), Donnan and White (1977), Svendsen and Mosbech (1977), Peterson et al. (1982), Adelstein and White (1976), Maxwell and Knapman (1985)
Pancreatitis Trapnell and Duncan (1975)
Diseases of the Genito-urinary System
Registrar General (1957b), Kessner and Florey (1967), Waters (1968a), Florey and Kessner (1968), Waters (1968b), Rosenheim (1968), Hamtoft and Mosbech (1968), Wright (1969), Hansen and Susser (1971), Ueda et al. (1976), Lancet (1973)
Complications of Pregnancy, Childbirth and the Puerperium
WHO (1954b), Beral (1979), Smith et al (1984)
Diseases of the Musculoskeletal System
Logan (1963), WHO, Regional Office for Europe (1972), Wood and Benn (1972), Lawrence et al (1961)
Paget’s diseaseBarker and Gardner (1974)
Rheumatoid arthritis Lindahl (1985)
Congenital Malformations
Weatherall and Haskey (1976), Hook et al (1977), Cock et al (1982)
Certain Causes of Perinatal Mortality
Stowman (1947–8), Fedrick and Butler (1972), Clarke and Whitfield (1979), Gau (1977), Harter et al (1986), Clarke et al (1987)
Sudden infant death Weiss et al (1973), Lancet (1975), Knowelden et al (1984), Arneil et al (1985)
Accidents, Poisoning and Violence
Turkel (1955), Marshall (1970)
Road accidents Norman (1962), WHO (1957), Chipman (1983)
Home accidents Backett (1965)
Fishing accidents Schilling (1966)
Fractured femur Pemberton and Cust (1986)
Hypothermia Adelstein (1973)
Suicide Barraclough (1972, 1973), Barraclough et al (1976), Oliver and Hetzel (1973), Brooke and Atkinson (1974), Ross and Kreitman (1975), McCarthy and Walsh (1975), Walsh et al (1975), Nelson et al (1978), Warshaver and Monk (1978), Sainsbury (1983)
Adverse medical events Scott (1986)
Anaesthetics Lunn and Mushin (1982), Lunn et al (1983)
2.4.2.4 Autopsy: General Issues
A number of studies have commented upon various aspects of the use of autopsies, and the following authors have each contributed to consideration of this in relation to the validity of mortality statistics: Beadenkopf et al (1965), Journal of the American Medical Association (1965), Stehbens (1974), Waldron and Vickerstaff (1975), Gau (1977), Cameron et al (1977), Cameron (1983), McGoogan and Cameron (1978), Cameron et al (1980), Carter et al (1981), Busuttil et al (1983), Geller (1983), Alderson et al (1983).
2.4.2.5 Certification
Confidential certificate Nicoli and Bellows (1934)
Perinatal deathsScott et al (1981), Mugford (1983), Gedalla and Alderson (1984), Scott (1984), Alderson et al (1985)
2.4.2.6 Coding
Wingrave et al (1981)
2.4.2.7 Validity of other items
NCHS (1969), Nelson et al (1987)
2.4.3 National Publications of Mortality Statistics by Cause Australia
Causes of Death, Australia, 1981 Table 6: Mortality by cause [3-digit], age group [22], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Region; Infant deaths Source: Australian Bureau of Census Language: English
Austria
Bericht uber das gesundheitswesen in Ostereich 1984 Table 54: Mortality by cause [346], age group [27], sex [M,F,P*] Other statistics by cause include: Deaths by Cause and Province; Rates/100 000 Source: Bundesministerium fur Gesundheit und Umweltschutz; Ostereichischen Statistischen Zentralamt, Wien, 1985 Language: German * M = data available for males; F = data available for females; P = data available for persons.
Belgium
Statistique des causes de deces Numero 9 1978 Table I 3: Mortality by cause [3/4-digit], age group [22], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Detailed tables for infants, stillbirths, perinatal, non-residents and accidents Source: Institut National de Statistique, Ministere des Affaires Economiques, 1983 Language: French
Brazil
Estatisticas de Mortalidade, 1980 Table 1: Mortality by cause [3-digit], age group [11], sex [M,F,P]. Other statistics by cause include: Locality Source: Centro de Documentacao de Ministerio da Saude, 1983 Language: Portuguese
Canada
Vital Statistics, Vol. IV, Causes of Death 1984 Table 1: Mortality by cause [4-digit], age group [19], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Province Source: Statistics Canada, 1986 Language: English; French
Czechoslovakia
CSSR, Zdravotnictvi, 1975 Table 3.17: Mortality by cause [33], age group [—], sex [—] Other statistics by cause include: Infant mortality; rates by region Source: Institute for Health Statistics, Prague and Bratislava Language: Czechoslovakian, English summary
Denmark
Dodsarsagerne, 1982 Table 7: Mortality by cause [4-digit], age group [19], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Urbanisation; percentage in hospital; autopsy; medicolegal examination; county; rates Source: Sundhedsstyrelsen, 1984 Language: Danish
Faroes
Arsberetning, 1985 Table: Mortality by cause [20], age group [—], sex [—] Source: Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer to the Faroes Language: Danish, French, English
Finland
Kuolemansyyt, 1982 Table 1 : Mortality by cause [3-digit], age group [32], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Rates for localities; marital status; basis of diagnosis; stillbirth, perinatal, neonatal deaths by birth weight Source: Tilostokeskus, Helsinki, 1985 Language: Finnish, Swedish, English
France
Statistique des causes medicales de deces, Tome 1, Resultats France 1978 Table 11: Mortality by cause [4-digit], age group [21], sex (M,F] Other statistics by cause include: B list rates by sex and age; infant deaths; principal, intermediate and associated causes; deaths by month Source: Institut National de la Sante et de la Recherche Medicale, Paris, 1982 Language: French
German Federal Republic
Todesursachen Reihe 4, Fachserie 12, 1984 Table 2: Mortality by cause [3/4-digit], age group [24], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Very limited—stillbirth, etc. Source: Heransgeber: Statistiches Bundesamt Weisbaden, 1985 Language: German
Greece
Mouvement naturel de la population de la Grece en 1981 Table 30: Mortality by cause [66], age group [22], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Place of death; certification; urban/rural, etc.; stillbirths and infant deaths Source: Office National de Statistique de Grece, Athenes, 1984 Language: Greek; French
Guernsey
Annual Report of the Medical Officer of Health, 1986 Table 8.11: Mortality by cause [BTL*], age group [8], sex [M,F] Source: Board of Health, 1986 Language: English
Hungary
Demografiai Evkonyv, 1983 Tables 7.3 and 7.4: Mortality by cause [3-digit], age group [21], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Perinatal and infant mortality; earning capacity, duration of marriage; place of death; certifier; accidents Source: Kozponti Statisztikai Hivatal, Budapest, 1985 Language: Hungarian; English contents list
Iceland
Heilbrigdisskyrslur 1981–82 Table pp. 26–29: Mortality by cause [65], age group [22], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Cancer: 14 commonest causes Source: Landlaeknisembaettio, 1984 Language: Icelandic; English summary
India
Vital Statistics of India, 1980 Table 21: Mortality by cause [BTL], age group [—], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: These are for medically certified deaths, a small proportion of the total. Other tables give broad cause by locality for all deaths Source: Office of the Registrar General, 1983 Language: English * BTL = Basic Tabulation List.
Iraq
Annual Bulletin of Vital and Health Statistics, 1959–60 Table 9: Mortality by cause [B list], age group [11], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Infant mortality Source: Ministry of Health, 1963 Language: Arabic, English
Ireland
Report on Vital Statistics, 1982 Table 19: Mortality by cause [3-digit], age group [22], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Locality; infant mortality; stillbirth, maternal age, parity, gestation Source: Central Statistics Office, Dublin, 1985 Language: English
Isle of Man
Chief Registrar’s Annual Report, 1985 Table 14: Mortality by cause [BTL], age group [17], sex [M,F] Source: General Registry, Isle of Man, 1986 Language: English
Israel
Causes of Death, 1981–82 Table 1 B: Mortality by cause [55], age group [22], sex [M,F,P] Other statistics by cause include: Religion; locality; urban/rural; month; hospital deaths Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1985 Language: Hebrew, English
Italy
Annuario di Statistiche Sanitarie, Vol XXVI, 1981 Table 8: Mortality by cause [3/4-digit], age group [25], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Stillbirths and infant mortality; region Source: Istituto Centrale di Statistica, Rome, 1985 Language: Italian
Jamaica
Demographic Statistics, 1979 Table 29: Mortality by cause [150], age group [—], sex [M,F,P] Source: Department of Statistics, 1980 Language: English
Japan
Vital Statistics, 1984, Vol 3 Table 1-1: Mortality by cause [3-digit], age group [25], sex [M,F,P] Other statistics by cause include: Month; locality; place of occurrence; occupational type of household; accident and violence; stillbirth, perinatal and infant deaths Source: Ministry of Health and Welfare, 1986 Language: Japanese, English
Jersey
Report of the Medical Officer of Health, 1985 Table 1: Mortality by cause [BTL], age group [17], sex [M,F] Source: States of Jersey, 1986 Language: English
Korea
Statistical Yearbook, 1982 Table 127: Mortality by cause [8], age group [—], sex [—] Source: Seoul Metropolitan Government, 1982 Language: Korean, English
Kuwait
Vital Statistics (Births-Deaths) 1983 Table 28: Mortality by cause [3-digit], age group [22], sex [M,F,P] Other statistics by cause include: Nationality; stillbirth, infant, maternal; neoplasms; heart disease; accidents Source: Ministry of Public Health, 1985 Language: Arabic, English
Luxembourg
Annuaire Statistique 1977 Table 4.1-6: Mortality by cause [B list], age group [—], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Suicide trends Source: Service Central de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques, 1977 Language: French
Malta
Mortality Statistics, 1985 Table: Mortality by cause [55], age group [19], sex [M,F] Source: Chief Medical Officer of Health, Malta Language: English
Mauritius
Annual Report of the Registrar General’s Department Table VI: Mortality by cause [150], age group [—], sex [M,F,P] Other statistics by cause include: Rates for commonest causes Source: Registrar General’s Department, 1981 Language: English
Mexico
Annuario estadistico de los estados unidos Mexicanos, 1981 Table 3.2.6: Mortality by cause [17], age group [—], sex [—] Other statistics by cause include: Locality Source: Coordinacion General de los Servicios Nacionales de Estadistica, Geografia y Informatica, 1982 Language: Spanish
Monaco
Cause of Death Tables Table 1: Mortality by cause [3-digit], age group [17], sex [M,F] Source: Service des Statistiques et Etudes Economiques Language: French
Morocco
Cause of Death Table Table 1: Mortality by cause [17], age group [—], sex [—] Source: Ministere de la Sante Language: French
Netherlands
Overledenen naar doodsoorzaak, leeftijd en geslacht in het jaar 1984, Serie Al Table (a): Mortality by cause [3-digit], age group [19], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Secondary causes and rates Source: Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, 1985 Language: Dutch
New Zealand
Mortality and Demographic Data, 1983 Table 11: Mortality by cause [4-digit], age group [22], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Maori deaths; certifier and post-mortem; urban areas; violence; maternal, stillbirth and infant deaths Source: National Health Statistics Centre, 1985 Language: English
Northern Ireland
Annual Report of the Registrar General, 1983 Table 20: Mortality by cause [3-digit], age group [25], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Place of occurrence; district of residence; infant mortality by month Source: HMSO, Belfast, 1986 Language: English
Norway
Dodsarsaker, 1982 Table 3: Mortality by cause [3/4-digit], age group [20], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Infant mortality; rates (A list); counties, Oslo, (A list) Source: Statistisk Sentralbyra, 1983 Language: Norwegian; English
Panama
Situation Demografica—Estadisticas Vitales: 1982 Table 38: Mortality by cause [BTL], age group [22], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Many other analyses Source: Direcion de Estadisticas y Censo, 1985 Language: Spanish
Philippines
Statistical Yearbook, 1983 Table 9.7: Mortality by cause [10], age group [—], sex [—] Other statistics by cause include: Infant mortality; 26 notifiable diseases Source: National Economic and Development Authority, 1983 Language: English
Portugal
Estatisicas da Saude, 1984 Table 54: Mortality by cause [BTL], age group [22], sex [M,F,P] Other statistics by cause include: Month; marital status; districts; uncertified; urban; infection by location and month; maternal; infant; occupation; stillbirth and perinatal Source: Instituto Nacional de Estatistica, 1985 Language: Portuguese; French
San Marino
Annual Statistics of San Marino, 1985 Table 3.1: Mortality by cause [56], age group [—], sex [P,F] Source: Ufficio Statale di Statistica, 1986 Language: Italian, English
Scotland
Annual Report, Registrar General for Scotland, 1985 Table C 2.1: Mortality by cause [3/4-digit], age group [22], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include:
Trend for selected cancers; locality; place of occurrence of accidents; following surgical procedure; stillbirth and infant deaths by locality and social class Source: HMSO, Edinburgh 1986 Language: English
Singapore
Report of the Registration of Births and Deaths Tables 46, 47: Mortality by cause [57], age group [23], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Type of certification; ethnic group Source: Registrar General of Births and Deaths, 1983 Language: English
South Africa
Deaths: Whites, Coloureds, and Asians, 1983 Table 9: Mortality by cause [3-digit], age group [22], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Rates; nature of injury; occupation; infant deaths Source: Central Statistical Services, 1985 Language: Afrikaans, English
Spain
Movimiento natural de la Poblacion Espanola, 1978, Tome III, Defunciones segun la causa de muerte Table 1: Mortality by cause [4-digit], age group [22], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Month of death; occupation; infant and stillbirth; rates; locality Source: Instituto Nacional de Estadistica, 1981 Language: Spanish
Sri Lanka
Statistical Abstract of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka Table 246: Mortality by cause [150], age group [—], sex [—] Source: Department of Census and Statistics, 1978 Language: Sinhalese, English
Sweden
Dodsorsaker, 1984 Table 2: Mortality by cause [4-digit] age group [23], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Rates; region; month; basis of certification Source: Statistika Centralbyran, 1986 Language: Swedish; English
Switzerland
Mouvement de la population en Suisse, 1984 Tables 64, 65: Mortality by cause [150], age group [22], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Month; locality; trend 1901-Source: Office Federal de la Statistique, Suisse, 1986 Language: German; French
Taiwan
Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of China, 1984 Table Supp. T2: Mortality by cause [3], age group [—], sex [—] Source: Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics, 1984 Language: English
Thailand
Statistical Yearbook, 1976–80 Table 31: Mortality by cause [10], age group [—], sex [—] Other statistics by cause include: Tuberculosis; accidents; malaria Source: National Statistical Office, 1984 Language: Thai, English
Trinidad and Tobago
Population and Vital Statistics Report, 1977 Table 65: Mortality by cause [150], age group [22], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Institutional deaths; place of residence; infant, maternal and violent deaths Source: Central Statistical Office, undated Language: English
Turkey
Health Statistics Yearbook of Turkey, 1979–81 Table 6.3: Mortality by cause [50], age group [10], sex [M,F,P] Source: Ministry of Information and Statistics, 1983 Language: Turkish, English
United States
Vital Statistics of the United States, 1979, Vol II, Mortality, Part A Table 1-25: Mortality by cause [282], age group [25], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: State; maternal mortality; month; percentage autopsy; place of death; marital status; stillbirths and perinatal deaths; accidents Source: National Centre for Health Statistics, 1984 Language: English
Venezuela
Annuario de Epidemiologica y Estadistica Vital, 1980, Tome I Table 2: Mortality by cause [4-digit], age group [22], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Many other details Source: Ministerio de Sanidad y Asistencia Social, 1982 Language: Spanish
Yugoslavia
Demografska Statistika, 1979 Table 4.5: Mortality by cause [47], age group [11], sex [M,F] Other statistics by cause include: Infant mortality; accidents Source: Saveyni Zavod Za Statistika, 1982 Language: Serbo-Croatian
2.4.4 Multiple Cause Coding England and Wales
The importance of providing some material by MCC was well recognised by the pioneer efforts in England and Wales. Major additional coding and tabulating was undertaken from the early part of the twentieth century. The following list indicates the principal publications that stemmed from this work:
1911: Deaths coded for the first 19 rubrics of the ICD were double coded and tables provided by place of death, sex and age.
1912–20:The 1911 exercise was extended, but not formally published.
1921–30: A sample of deaths were multicoded (from 10 per cent to 100 per cent of deaths for any specific UCD). Extensive tabulations were provided, including UCD against main subsidiary causes.
1935: A limited analysis was prepared, with counts of the numbers of certificates with more than one cause.
1945: A limited analysis of a sample of only 8702 non-violent deaths.
1951: A 10 per cent sample of deaths were multiple cause coded.
1966–67:Tabulations were provided for a limited examination of MCC.
United States
Equivalent publications for the US are: 1918: US Bureau of the Census. Mortality Statistics, 1918. Washington: USGPO, 1920.
1925: US Bureau of the Census. Mortality Statistics 1925, Part 1. Washington: USGPO, 1927.
1936: US Bureau of the Census. Deaths from Alcoholism, US 1936. US Vital Statistics, Special Reports, 1939, No. 59.
1940: US Department of Health Education and Welfare. Vital Statistics of the US 1940. Part 1. Washington: USGPO, 1943.
1955: US Department of Health Education and Welfare. Vital Statistics of the US 1955, Supplement. Washington: USGPO, 1965
Specific Causes of Death
The following notes identify a number of studies of multiple cause coding which have discussed the application of this technique to specific causes of death. It does not cover the method issues, which are reviewed in subsection 2.2.3.1. Many of these method studies provide some material on a variety of causes of death, using underlying cause and multiple cause analysis.
Diabetes
Lancaster (1962), Jennings (1963), Fuller et al (1983)
Neurological Conditions—multiple sclerosis
Kurtzke (1972), Malmgren et al (1983)
Cardiovascular Disease
Weiner et al (1955)
Coronary heart diseaseKrueger (1966)
Hypertension Krueger (1966), Wing and Manton (1981)
Cerebrovascular disease Krueger (1966), Kuller et al. (1968)
Respiratory Disease
Markush (1968)
Bronchitis Krueger (1966)
Alimentary Disease—Cirrhosis
Speizer et al (1977)
Renal Disease
Weiner et al (1955)
Stillbirth and Infant Deaths
Macfarlane (1980)
Various Causes
Westlund (1981)
Migrants—Israel
Cohen (1971)
Occupational Studies
Wong et al (1978)
Method Study
Manton et al (1980b)
2.4.5 Occupational Mortality
The following notes list in alphabetical order those countries which have provided major publications on occupational mortality.
Australia
Deaths aged 30–64 in 1968–78, for broad causes of death for nine occupational groups. Directly age-standardised results provided. McMichael and Hartshorne (1982).
Canada
Ten per cent sample of the labour force in 1965–68 followed to 1973, resulting in 415 201 deaths. SMRs given for 13 sites of cancer for 12 occupational groups and 11 industrial groups. Howe and Lindsay (1983).
Denmark
Linkage of the 1970 census to deaths up to 1975 published, giving limited data by cause and occupation. Danmarks Statistiks (1979).
England and Wales
Logan (1982) summarised the main results for 1885–1971 for cancer by occupation and social class.
Deaths in 1979–83 at ages 20–74 analysed by sex, occupation and social class. Data for married women provided by their own occupation and that of their husbands. Registrar General (1986).
Finland
Census data for 1970 linked to deaths in 1971–75 at ages 15–64. For males data presented for 72 occupations, with SMRs provided for main causes of death. Sauli (1979).
France
A survey in 1954 provided information on the characteristics of a sample of males aged 30–69, and, for those who were married, of their wives. Deaths were traced up to 1974. Results were provided for 112 socioeconomic groups and seven broad causes of death. Desplanques (1976).
Italy
The census for Turin in 1971 has been linked to the local death index, with tracing of those dying outside the area. No results are yet available. Costa, G., personal communication (1984).
New Zealand
Deaths in 1974–78 have been analysed, using the 1976 census to provide denominator data. This was from a 10 per cent sample of the full census. Results were analysed for 3-digit categories of the ICD, by occupational order and social class. Using the world population standard, directly age-standardised rates were calculated. Pearce and Howard (1985, 1986).
Northern Ireland
Deaths in 1960–62 have been analysed in relation to the 1961 census, with SMRs being calculated for males aged 15–64 for 127 occupation orders and four broad causes of death. Park (1965–6).
Norway
The 1970 census was linked to deaths in 1970–73, and then to the 1960 census. The 25 000 deaths in males and 4500 deaths in females have been analysed by occupational group and cause of death. Haldorsen and Glattre (1976), Kristofersen (1979).
Scotland
The report for 1979–83 referred to under England and Wales included data for Scotland for the first time. Prior to this, decennial reports had been produced independently for Scotland by the Registrar General since 1891.
Sweden
The 1960 census of population was linked to deaths in 1961–70. A second exercise linked the 1970 census to deaths in 1971–80 (Statistika Centralbyran, 1981). A system has been developed to provide quick access to the linked files to answer ad hoc requests. (See Malker and Weiner, 1984.)
United States
Limited results were provided by Britten (1934), with further detail for deaths in ten states in 1930 being provided by Whitney (1934). A subsequent study used deaths in males aged 20–64 in 1950 and the census estimates of population at risk. Detailed analyses were provided by occupation and industry, giving PMRs and SMRs (Guralnick, 1962, 1963a,b).
Detailed results have been provided for deaths in Washington state in 1950–79 for males aged 20 and over. PMRs were published for 217 occupations and the main 3-digit categories of the ICD (Milham, 1983).
2.4.6 Life Tables
Preston et al (1972): Forty-seven countries for twelve causes for 1861–1964. UN (1986c): Forty-three developing countries for two recent time periods for all-cause mortality by sex.
England and Wales
This series has been traditionally known as the English Life Table. The following are the data periods, with the references to the later tables: ELT 1 (1841); ELT 2 (1838–4); ELT 3 (1838–54); ELT 4 (1871-80); ELT 5 (1881–90); ELT 6 (1891–1900); ELT 7 (1901–10); ELT 8 (1910–12); ELT 9 (1920–22); ELT 10 (1930–32); ELT 11 (1950–52: Registrar General, 1957c); ELT 12 (1960–62: Registrar General, 1968); ELT 13 (1970–72: OPCS, 1979b); ELT 14 (1980–82: OPCS, 1987b).
United States
1969–71: Greville (1975)
International
UN (1986c)
2.4.7 Migrants
This list indicates major studies that have reported the mortality of various migrant groups. It covers a number of general studies and then studies restricted to particular causes of death. The majority of these have dealt with various forms of malignant disease; they concentrate upon either one site of malignancy or a variety of forms of cancer. The cause-specific studies are listed within the various headings for the causes by country in which the migrants have been studied and, within this, the country of origin.
General Studies
Japan Koreans in 1973–82: Ubukata et al. (1986)
South Africa Immigrants’ mortality: Dean (1961)
United States Migrants from Great Britain and Norway: Reid (1966), Rogot et al (1985)
Foreign-born: Krueger and Moriyama (1967)
Japanese: Gordon (1982)
Cancer
Australia Born in Poland (cancer): Staszewski et al. (1971) Born in Europe (gastro-intestinal cancer): McMichael et al. (1980)
Brazil Born in Japan (gastric cancer): Prudente and Mirra (1961)
England Born in Asia (cancer incidence): Donaldson and Clayton (1984)
Hawaii Born in Japan (stomach cancer): Haenszel et al. (1972)
Israel Born in US (cancer): Haenszel (1971) Immigrants (cancer): Halevi (1971)
Japan Born in Korea (cancer): Oshima et al. (1982)
Kenya Born in Asia (cancer): Chopra et al. (1975)
Singapore Born in China (liver cancer): Shanmugaratnam and Tye (1970) Born in China (nasopharyngeal cancer): Shanmugaratnam and Tye (1970)
South Africa Immigrants (lung cancer): Dean (1959)
United States Born abroad (cancer): Mancuso and Coulter (1958), Haenszel (1961) Born in Hawaii and Philippines (cancer): Smith (1957a) Chinese (cancer): Smith (1956a), King and Haenszel (1973), King and Locke (1981), King et al. (1985) Indians (cancer): Smith (1957b) Japanese (cancer): Smith (1956b), Haenszel and Kurihara (1968), Buell (1973) Japanese first- and second-generation (cancer): Buell and Dunn (1965) Polish (cancer): Staszewski and Haenszel (1965) Mexico (lung cancer in women): Buechley et al. (1957)
Multiple Sclerosis
Britain Born abroad: Dean et al. (1977) South Africa Born abroad: Dean (1967), Dean and Kurtze (1971)
Cardiovascular Disease
Australia Born in British Isles: Stenhouse and McCall (1970)
Israel Born in East: Kallner and Groen (1968)
United States Foreign-born: Stamler et al. (1960)
2.4.8 Area Analyses
The following lists indicate a number of major publications on geographic mortality. The first section indicates those major reviews that have been recently published. The next two sections cover atlases that have been published; these are somewhat dominated by the recent interest in mapping of cancer. The fourth section covers selected references of studies of specific causes of death.
2.4.8 Area Analyses 2.4.8.1 Reviews of International Mortality
Scandinavia in 1966–68:Bolander (1971)
Europe, premature mortality Catford and Ford (1984)
The geography of disease Doll (1984)
World and regional pattern for seven broad causes by age and sex, in 1980 Hakulinen et al (1986)
Global geocancerologyHowe (1986b)
The geography of non-infectious diseaseHutt and Burkitt (1986)
Review of international data Learmonth (1981)
Arab countries Hammoud (1977)
Caribbean countries McGlashan (1982)
Western Europe van Poppel (1981)
World health situation, 1973–77 (limited data for individual countries)WHO (1980a)
Individual Countries
Belgium Kurnitzer et al. (1979)
Chile Hayes (1983)
France Grosclaude et al. (1978)
Poland Wojtyniak and Krzyzanowski (1986)
General Review of Topic
Howe (1986a)
2.4.8.2 Atlases of General Mortality
Canada Wigle and Mao (1980)
Chile Haynes (1982)
England and Wales Haviland (1875), Owen (1889), Howe (1970b), Gardner et al (1984a)
Japan Shigematsu (1982)
New Zealand Burman and Leiataua (1984)
United States Mason et al (1981)
2.4.8.3 Atlases of Cancer Mortality
World maps Dunham and Bailar (1968)
Belgium Ryckeboer et al (1983)
Canada Ministry of Supply and Services (1980)
China Editorial Committee in the People’s Republic of China (1979)
England and Wales Stocks (1936, 1937, 1939), Gardner et al (1984b)
France Rezvani et al (1986)
Germany (FDR) Frentzel-Beyme et al (1979), Becker et al (1984) Italy Cislagi et al (1978)
Japan Segi (1977)
Netherlands Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (1980)
New Zealand Burman (1982)
Spain Lopez-Abente et al (1984)
Switzerland Brooke (1976)
Taiwan Chen et al (1979)
United States Counties1950–69: Mason et al (1975) Non-whites: Mason et al (1975)
2.4.8.4 Specific Causes of Death Infections
World atlas of epidemic disease Rodenwaldt (1952)
Cholera 20 countries in 1946: WHO (1948b)
Viral respiratory disease International comparisons: WHO (1980b)
Cancer
39 countries for 18 sites 1978-79: Kurihara et al (1984)
Europe 1955–74 Campbell et al 1980
Brazil Brumini (1982)
Canada Statistics Canada (1977)
China Li and Shiang (1980)
France (urban) Picheral (1979)
Poland Gadomska (1982)
Shanghai 1963–77 Gao et al. (1981)
United States Burbank (1971)
USSR Serenko and Tserkovni (1974), Napalkov et al (1981, 1983)
Specific sites Oesophagus: Day (1984) Stomach: Haenszel (1958) Prostate (45 countries): Tulinius (1977)
Neurological Disease
33 countries: Goldberg and Kurland (1962)
Multiple sclerosisInternational data: Goldberg and Kurland (1962), Acheson (1972)
Cardiovascular Disease
24 countries in 1954: Puffer and Verhoestraete (1958)
Europe Cairns Smith and Tunstall-Pedoe (1984)
England and Wales Stocks (1969), Gardner et al (1969)
Scotland (coronary heart disease)Crombie et al (1986)
Cerebrovascular disease Japan: Netsky and Miyaji (1976) England and Wales 1970–72: Acheson and Sanderson (1978) International comparisons: WHO (1971a)
Respiratory Disease
Chronic bronchitisEngland and Wales: Holland (1966)
AsthmaNew Zealand and England: Sears et al (1986b)
Maternal Mortality
69 countries in 1950–54: Tietze (1977)
Arthritis
Paget’s diseaseEurope: Detheridge et al (1982) Great Britain: Barker and Gardner (1974)
Accidents and Violence
Road accidentsIndustrial countries: Chesnais (1983)
Suicide 19 countries: Sainsbury and Jenkins (1982) Denmark, England and Wales, Ireland: Walsh et al. (1984)
Particular Age Groups
Childhood South America (9 countries in 1968–71): Puffer and Serramo (1973) 97 countries: Dyson (1977) EEC countries: Blondel et al (1985)
Adolescents 97 countries: Dyson (1977) 8 countries: WHO (1977c) Violent deaths in various countries: WHO (1986a)
Adults United States (11 causes by age, sex and race in 1968-72): NCHS (1980)
2.4.9 Trends in Mortality
The following notes provide an annotated bibliography of the major international and national publications on trends in mortality. This excludes (a) those that deal with a relatively short time period and (b) reports based on relatively small numbers of deaths. Also, it excludes articles in journals, where the consideration of trends is just one minor facet of an article and not a major review of the topic. The list begins with a consideration of those reviews that cover mortality for one or more countries and deal with a number of different causes of death. These are listed by alphabetical order of the countries involved. The second section deals with the reverse, i.e. reviews of specific causes of death which have presented trend data for one or more countries. The causes are listed in order of the ICD, and within cause the material covers multinational studies first and then individual countries in alphabetical order.
The text has already indicated the wealth of mortality statistics regularly published by UN and WHO. Only special articles with comment on trend are included in the bibliography.
2.4.9.1 International Studies World
WHO (1980a): life expectancy and crude mortality for all countries 1973–77
Europe
Caselli and Egidi (1980): general review
Lopez and Cliquet (1984): general review of demographic trends
Lynge (1984): trends in mortality, 1950–80
Teper and Backett (1984): demographic trends in persons 0–19
Heikkinen (1984): demographic trends persons 60 +
Brzezinski (1985): mortality 1960–79 for 18 main causes
Latin America
Palloni and Wyrick (1981): main causes in 1950–75
Canada
Basavarajappa and Lindsay (1976): 1960–62 v. 1970–72 Statistics Canada (1976): age-standardised rates by sex for 21 causes of death, 1950–-72; in addition, special reviews covered accidents, cancer, cardiovascular renal mortality, infant mortality and suicide
Chinese Population
Ling (1981): 30 years—7 main causes for 1949–78
Czechoslovakia
Srb and Haas (1956): mortality from each of the 17 chapters of the ICD, for 1919–48 for persons
Developed Countries (Japan, FDR, United States)
Junge (1985): main causes of death
England and Wales
Logan (1950–51): 37 causes by age and sex, 1848–1947
Campbell (1965): 32 causes by age and sex, 1931–61
OPCS (1978a): 63 causes, 1951–75
Finland
Strommer (1969): demographic transition and infant mortality, 1887–1965
Kannisto (1947): expectation of life, competing causes and years of life lost
France
Aubenque et al. (1978): mortality by 14 causes, age and sex, 1925–74
Israel
Davies (1979): various broad causes for 1948–77
Italy
Instituto Centrale di Statistica (1958): mortality by age and 6th revision of ICD for 1887–1955
Capocaccia (1986): all causes, 1880–1980
Japan
Hishinuma (1981): 29 causes, 1947–78
Netsky and Miyaji (1977): leading causes of death, 1925–65
Mexico
Vandale et al (1983): main causes, 1950–75
Netherlands
Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (1957): 14 causes by age and sex, 1921–55
Norway
Statistick Sentralbyra (1961): limited causes by age and sex
Statistisk Sentralbyra (1966): main causes, 1901–63
Statistiek Sentralbyra (1974): mortality by age and sex for underlying and associated causes, 1951–70
Portugal
Soares and da Motta (1950): all causes and eight infectious diseases, 1902–52
Scotland
Carstairs and Redpath (1986): 1974–83
United States
Linder and Grove (1943): 58 causes by age and sex, 1900–40 Grove and Hetzel (1968): ICD 3rd digit by age and sex, 1900–60 Erhardt and Berlin (1974): general discussions of mortality and longevity (with some international comparisons), morbidity, geographic variation, use of medical services, influence of marital status, and infant mortality
2.4.9.2 Cause-specific Studies Infections
General reviews US trends, 1935–61: Dauer et al. (1968)
Cholera India and Burma, 1938–45: WHO (1948b)
Diphtheria 24 countries, 1901–54: WHO (1955a)
Malaria 15 countries, 1901–49: WHO (1951)
Measles 15 countries, 1901–49: WHO (1951) United States, 1900–72: Barkin (1975)
Scarlet fever 27 countries, 1901–52: WHO (1954a)
Smallpox 15 countries, 1901–49: WHO (1951)
Syphilis 24 countries, 1901-52: WHO (1954b) US trends, 1900-65: Brown et al. (1970)
Neurosyphilis England and Wales, 1911–69: Purdon Martin (1972)
Tetanus England and Wales, 1930–79: Galbraith et al. (1981)
Tuberculosis 8 countries, 1851–1940; Springett (1950); 55 countries, mortality for 1961–72: Bulla (1977); Britain, 1945–1970: Springett (1971); US trends: Lovell (1969)
Typhoid 26 countries, 1901–54: WHO (1955b)
Typhus 15 countries, 1901–49: WHO (1951)
Whooping cough 23 countries, 1901–54: WHO (1956)
Cancer
44 countries 16 sites, 1955–65: WHO (1970b)
24 countries 18 sites, 1950–79: Kurihara et al. (1984)
24 European countriesall neoplasms, 1955–74: Campbell (1980)
24 European countrieslung, stomach, colon, prostate, breast, 1955–74: Campbell (1980)
Belgium 1960–79: Beckers et al. (1982)
Canada 10 sites, 1941–53: Phillips and Owchar (1955)
England and Wales 1911–70: OPCS (1975a) 1911–78: Alderson (1982b)
France 1954–76: Berlie et al (1980)
Great Britain 1961–78: Cancer Research Campaign (1982)
Japan 1900–54, extended with some age- and sex-specific sites for 1899–62: Segi et al (1955, 1965) 1950–74: Hirayama (1977)
United States 1930–55: Gordon et al (1974) 1950–67: Burbank (1971) 1935–74: Devesa and Silverman (1978) 1950–77: McKay et al (1982) 1930–61: Lilienfeld et al (1972) 1973–77: Young et al (1981)
USSR 1961–67 Ferenko and Romensky 1970
Specific Sites of Malignancy
Colorectal New Zealand: Smith et al (1985)
Liver 37 countries, 1963–72: Aoki (1978)
Pancreas 38 countries, 1950–72: Aoki and Ogawa (1978)
Lung 44 countries, 1950–72: Benjamin (1977) Western Europe, 1954–76: Council of Europe (1978) Spain, 1951-80: Vioque and Bolumar (1987)
Sweden and United States, 1950–82: Manton et al (1986) United States, 1914–50: Gilliam (1955)
Melanoma 40 countries, 1955–74: Jensen and Bolander (1980)
Breast 19 countries, 1920–53: Pascua (1956)
Ovary 8 countries, 1955–74: Muir and Nectoux (1978)
Uterus 19 countries, 1920–53: Pascua (1956)
Bladder 40 countries, 1955–74: Staszewski (1980a)
Kidney 49 countries, 1955–74: Staszewski (1980b)
Prostate 36 countries, 1957–72: Hakulinen et al (1978) England and Wales, 1911–75: Alderson (1981b)
Thyroid England and Wales, 1931–75: Alderson (1980a)
Hodgkin’s disease 37 countries, 1957–72: Correa (1977)
Leukaemia 5 countries, 1920–75: Alderson (1980b)
Children’s cancer 29 countries, 1955–74: West (1984) Great Britain, 1959-79: Draper et al (1982) Sweden, 1958–74: Erichsson et al (1978)
Endocrine Disease
Diabetes England and Wales, 1920–70: Trowell (1974) 1968–80: Robinson et al (1984) United States 1970–78: Holman et al (1983)
Nervous system
General United States, 1901–68: Kurland et al (1973)
Epilepsy Various countries, 1901–53: WHO (1955c)
Multiple sclerosis Various countries: Acheson (1972) Norway, 1951-68: Westlund (1970)
Parkinsons disease 18 countries, 1921–53: WHO (1955d) England and Wales, 1855–1962: Duvoisin and Schweitzer (1966) 1921–68: Brown and Knox (1972)
Mental Disorders
United States, 1901–67: Kramer et al (1972)
Cardiovascular Disease
Heart disease 27 industrialised countries, 1968–77: Pisa and Uemura (1982) 26 countries, 1950–78: Thorn et al (1985) 27 industrialised countries, 1969-–82: Uemura and Pisa (1985) 26 industrialised countries, 1970–82: WHO (1986b) England and Wales, 1951–75: OPCS (1978b) England and Wales (women), 1955–72: Beral (1976) Finland, 1969–79: Salonen et al (1983) 1969–82: Tuomilehto et al (1986) Italy, 1968–78: La Vecchia and Decarli (1986) Philippines, 1963–76: Tuomilehto et al (1984) Switzerland, 1951–76: Guberan (1979) United States, 1900–45: Woolsey and Moriyama (1946) 1901–66: Moriyama et al (1971) 1940–75: Cooper et al (1978) 1950–76: Havlik and Feinlieb (1979) 1925–75: Patrick et al (1982)
Cerebrovascular diseaseAustralia, 1950–78: Dobson et al (1981) England and Wales, 1950–73: Acheson and Sanderson (1978) Ireland, 1920–55: Acheson (1960) Israel, 1969–78: Epstein and Zaarour (1982) Japan, 1920–65: Netsky and Miyaji (1976) 1956–80: Ueshima et al (1984) 1960–79: Tanaka et al (1982) New Zealand, 1953–79: Bonita and Beaglehole (1982) Singapore, 1959–83: Hughes (1987)
United States, 1930–60: Kuller et al. (1968) 1960–75: Soltero et al. (1978)
Ischaemic heart disease 21 countries, 1950–74: Marmot et al. (1981) 27 countries, 1968–77: Pisa and Uemura (1982) 29 countries, 1969–81: Tunstall-Pedoe et al. (1986) Australia, 1950–78: Dobson et al. (1981) England and Wales, 1900–60: Robb-Smith (1967) England and Wales, 1950–73: Clayton et al. (1977) Finland, 1951–80: Pyorala and Valkonen (1981) Israel, 1969–78: Epstein and Zaarour (1982) Japan, 1956–80: Ueshima et al. (1987) Poland, 1971–77: Rywik and Wagrowska (1979) Singapore, 1959–83: Hughes (1986) United Kingdom, 1968–80: Heller et al. (1983) United States, 1950–76: Havlik and Feinlieb (1979) USSR trends: Cooper (1981)
Hypertension Japan, 1956–80: Ueshima et al. (1984) New Zealand, 1973–82: Bonita and Beaglehole (1986) Singapore, 1959–83: Hughes 1987
Respiratory Disease
Various countries1971–80: Melia and Swan (1986)
30 countries 1950–72: Bouvier and Guidevaux (1979)
Asthma 6 countries, 1968–78, ages 5–34: Jackson et al. (1982) England and Wales, 1867–1966, ages 5-–34: Speizer and Doll (1968) 1976–83: Ayres (1986) 1974–84: Burney (1986)
Chronic bronchitis England and Wales, 1939-50: Goodman et al. (1953) Canada, 1950–84: Manfreda et al. (1986)
Alimentary Disease
General United States, 1930–65: Medeloff and Dunn (1971)
Peptic ulcer England and Wales, 1911–42: Morris and Titmus (1944) 1900–59: Susser and Stein (1962) 1901–77: Susser (1982) 1958–83: Walt et al. (1986) United States, 1970-78: Elashoff and Grossman (1980)
Acute appendicitis 9 countries, 1901–1980: Alderson (1985b) England and Wales, 1931–80: Barker (1986)
Cirrhosis of the liver England and Wales, 1911–75: Donnan and Haskey (1977)
Renal Disease
England and Wales 1955–66: Florey and Kessner (1968) 1949–65: Waters (1968)
England and Wales, and United States 1940–64: Kessner and Florey (1967) 1860–1960: Hansen and Susser (1971)
Maternal Mortality
United States 1935–64: Shapiro et al (1968)
Perinatal Mortality
7 countries 1935–64: NCHS (1967a)
8 countries 1969–78: Foster (1981)
United States 1935–64: Shapiro et al (1968)
Arthritis
United States 1901–64: Cobb (1971)
Accidents and Violence
England and Wales 1951–75: OPCS (1978a)
France 1826–1970: Chesnais (1976)
Netherlands 1967–78: de Haas (1982)
United States 1900–64: Iskrant and Joliet (1968) 1900–75: Holinger and Kiemen (1982) 1967–78: de Haas (1982)
In children 50 countries, 1950–78: Marmsonn and Delurnisch (1977) United States, 1900–80: Holinger et al (1983–85)
In elderly Finland, 1951–79: Kivela and Honkanen (1986)
Suicide 45 countries, 1955–66: WHO (1968a) Australia, 1955–70: Oliver and Hetzel (1973) England and Wales, 1900–76: Jennings and Barraclough (1980) 1950–82: Bulusu and Alderson (1984) England and Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Ireland, 1960–73: Dean et al (1976a)
Homicide United States, 1900–74: Klebba (1975)
Infant and/or childhood 32 countries, 1951–73: Dyson (1977) 21 Latin American countries, 1950–72: Baum and Arriagha (1981) 14 developing countries, 1950–78: Bhatty (1981)
25 countries,1955–79:Macfarlane and Mugford (1984) Number of children who die in the world: Gwatkin (1980) Socioeconomic differentials in child mortality in developing countries: Department of International and Social Affairs (1985) Poland, 1950–79: Mazur (1983)
Adults aged 35–64 18 developed countries for sevencauses, 1950–73: Ovcharov and Bystrova (1978)
Adults aged 55–64 Australia, 1966–72: Ireland and Lawson (1980)
Elderly 30 countries, 1955–78: Lopez and Hanada (1982) United States, 1948–78: Fingerhut (1982)
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Alderson, M. (1988). Mortality Statistics. In: Mortality, Morbidity and Health Statistics. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-09068-6_2
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