Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Neurobiology and neurochemistry of the developing brain

  • Chapter
Scientific Studies in Mental Retardation

  • 124 Accesses

Abstract

Little is still understood about the nature of the anatomical structures or interrelationships associated with higher mental activity. For the most part, the aetiology of mental retardation is also unknown. Apart from genetic abnormality (e.g. 21 trisomy), inborn errors (e.g. galactosaemia) and infections (viral and bacterial), there are environmental factors which may permanently affect the brain during critical stages of its development. A study of the neuropathology of these diverse conditions may provide some clues to structures affected and possible mechanisms leading to mental impairment (Davison, 1977). In order to appreciate these possibilities, it is first necessary to consider the series of events which lead to the ordered development of the central nervous system.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Ball, M.J. and Nuttall, K. (1980). Neurofibrillary tangles, granulovacuolar degeneration and neuron loss in Down syndrome: quantitative comparison with Alzheimer dementia, Ann. Neurol., 7, 462–466

    Google Scholar 

  • Banik, N.L., Davison, A.N., Palo, J. and Savolainen, H. (1975). Biochemical studies on myelin isolated from the brains of patients with Down’s syndrome, Brain, 98, 213–218

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bauman, M.L. and Kemper, T.L. (1982). Morphologic and histoanatomic observations of the brain in the untreated human phenylketonuria, Acta Neuropath. (Berl.), 58, 55–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjorklund, A., Stenevi, U., Dunnett, S.B. and Gage, F.H. (1982). Cross-species neural grafting in a rat model of Parkinson’s disease, Nature, 298, 652–654

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, D.M. (1981). Alzheimer’s disease. In: The Molecular Basis of Neuropathology (A.N. Davison and R.H.S. Thompson, eds.) pp. 649–665. Edward Arnold, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Cragg, B.G. (1975). The density of synapses and neurons in normal, mentally defective and ageing human brains, Brain, 98, 81–90

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crome, L. and Stern, J. (1972). Pathology of Mental Retardation, 2nd edition. Churchill-Livingston, Edinburgh and London

    Google Scholar 

  • Cronly-Dillon, J.R. and Perry, G.W. (1976). Tubulin synthesis in developing rat visual cortex, Nature, 261, 581–583

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davison, A.N. (1977). The biochemistry of brain development and mental retardation, Royal College of Psychiatrists: The Eleventh Blake Marsh Lecture, (February, 1977)

    Google Scholar 

  • Garber, B.B. and Moscona, A.A. (1973). Neural patterning: aggregate patterns of regionally differentiated brain cells, Neurosci. Res. Symposium Summaries, 10, 331–335

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamburger, V. and Oppenheim, R.W. (1982). Naturally occurring neuronal death in vertebrates, Neurosci. Commentaries, 1, 39–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, M.V. and Coyle, J.T. (1982). Cytotoxic lesions and the development of transmitter systems, Trends in Neurosci., 5, 153–156

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Landis, S.C. and Patterson, P.H. (1981). Neural crest cell lineages, Trends in Neurosci., 4, 172–175

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd, K.G., Hornykiewicz, 0., Davidson, L., Shannak, K., Farley, I., Goldstein, M., Shibuya, M., Kelley, W.N. and Fox, I.H. (1981). Biochemical evidence of dysfunction of brain neurotransmitters in the Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, New Engl. J. Med., 305, 1106–1111

    Google Scholar 

  • Loo, Y.H., Fulton, T., Miller, K. and Wisniewski, H. (1980). Phenylacetate and brain dysfunction in experimental phenylketonuria: synaptic development, Life Sci., 27, 1283–1290

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Low, W.C., Lewis, P.R., Bunch, S.T., Dunnett, S.B., Thomas, S.R., Iversen, S.D., Bjorklund, A. and Stenevi, U. (1982). Function recovery following neural transplantation of embryonic septal nuclei in adult rats with septohippocampal lesions, Nature, 300, 260–262

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mann, D.M.A., Yates, P.O. and Hawkes, J. (1982). Plaques and tangles and transmitter deficiencies in dementia, J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiat., 45, 563–564

    Google Scholar 

  • Marx, J.L. (1982). Transplants as guides to brain development, Science, 217, 340–342

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uhara, N.I. (19/’L). tlectron mlcroscoplcal stuay or tne Draln in Down’s syndrome, Brain, 95, 681–684

    Google Scholar 

  • Patel, A.J. and Lewis, P.D. (1982). Effects on cell proliferation of pharmacological agents acting on the central nervous system. In: Mechanisms of Actions of Neurotoxic Substances (K.N. Prasad and A. Vernadakis, eds) pp. 181–218. Raven Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Price, D.L., Whitehouse, P.J., Struble, R.G., Coyle, J.T., Clark, A.W., DeLong, M.R., Cork, L.C. and Hedreen, J.C. (1983). Alzheimer’s disease and Down’s syndrome, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 396, 145–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Rakic, P. (1981). Neuronal-glial interaction during brain development, Trends in Neurosci., 4, 184–187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reis, D.J., Fink, J.S. and Baker, H. (1982). A genetic control of numbers of dopamine neurons in brain: relationship to behavior and responses to psychoactive drugs. In Genetics of Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders (S.S. Kety, L.P. Rowland, R.L. Sidman, and S.W. Matthysse, (eds) pp. 55–75. Raven Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Sara, V.R. and Hall, K. (1979). Growth hormone, growth factors, and the brain, Trends in Neurosci., 2, 263–265

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seeds, N.W., Haffke, S.C. and Krystosek, A. (1980). Cell migration and recognition in cerebellar reaggregate cultures. In: Tissue Culture in Neurobiology (E. Giacobini, et al., eds) pp. 145–154. Raven Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Trisler, D. (1982). Are molecular markers of cell position involved in the formation of neural circuits?, Trends in Neurosci., 5, 306–310

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yates, C.M., Simpson, J., Maloney, A.F.J., Gordon, A. and Reid, A.H. (1980). Alzheimer-like cholinergic deficiency in Down syndrome, Lancet, ii, 979

    Google Scholar 

  • Abney E., Bartlett P.P. and Raff M. (1981). Astrocyte, ependymal cell and oligodendrocyte develop on schedule in dissociated cell cultures of 10-day old embryonic rat brain. Dev. Biol., 30, 301–310

    Google Scholar 

  • Atterwill C.K., Balazs R., Bermudez I. and Kingsbury A. (1983). Effect of thyroid hormone on certain membrane properties of developing neuron tissue in vitro. Proc. 4th ESN Meet. (Catania), 454

    Google Scholar 

  • Balazs R. (1977). Effect of thyroid hormone and undernutrition on cell acquisition in the rat brain. In: Thyroid Hormone and Brain Development, (G.D. Graves, Ed.), Raven Press, New York, 288–298

    Google Scholar 

  • Balazs R., Lewis P.D. and Patel A.J. (1979). Nutritional deficiencies and brain development. In: Human Growth, 3, (F. Falkner and J.M. Tanner, Eds.), Plenum Press, New York, 415–480

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Balazs R., Patel A.J. and Lewis P.D. (1977). Metabolic influences on cell proliferation in the brain. In: Biochemical Correlates of Brain Structure and Function, (A.N. Davison, Ed.), Academic Press, New York, 43–83

    Google Scholar 

  • Balazs R., Regan C., Gordon R.D., Annunziata P., Kingsbury A.E. and Meier E. (1982). Certain surface properties of isolated and cultured cerebellar cells. In: Neurotransmitter Interaction and Compartmentation, (H.F. Bradford, Ed.), Plenum Press, New York, 515–534

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Balazs R., Regan C., Meier E., Woodhams P.L., Wilkin G.O., Patel N.J. and Gordon R.D. (1980). Biochemical properties of cell types from rat cerebellum. In: Tissue Culture in Neurobiology, (E. Giacobini, A. Vernadakis and A. Shahar, Eds.), Raven Press, New York, 155–168

    Google Scholar 

  • Baxter J.D., Eberhardt N.L., Apriletti J.W., Johnson L.K., Ivarie R.D., Schachter B.S., Morris J.A., Seeburg P.H., Goodman H.M., Lathem K.R., Polansky J.R. and Martial J.A. (1979). Thyroid hormone receptors and responses. In: Recent Progress in Hormone Research, 35, (R.O. Green, Ed.), Academic Press, New York, 97–144

    Google Scholar 

  • Bottenstein J. and Sato G. (1979). Growth of a rat neuroblastoma cell line in serum-free supplemented media. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 76, 514–517

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brooksbank B.W.L. and Balazs R. (1981). Aspects of biochemical development of the brain. In: Maturation and Development: Biological and Psychological Perspectives, (K.J. Connolly and H.F.R. Prechtl, Eds.), Heinemann Medical Books, London, 131–161

    Google Scholar 

  • Crepel F. (1974). Excitatory and inhibitory processes acting upon the cerebellar Purkinje cells during maturation in the rat: influence of hypothyroidism. Exp. Brain Res., 230, 403–420

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallo V., Kingsbury A., Woodhams P.D. and Balazs R. (1983). Development of nerve cells in cerebellar cultures in the presence of foetal calf serum or in chemically defined media: differences in cell adhesion and the organisation of the plasma membrane. Biochem. Soc. Trans., (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Garthwaite J. and Balazs R. (1981). Separation of cell types from the cerebellum and their properties. Adv. Cell Neurobiol., 2, (S. Federoff and L. Hertz, Eds.), Academic Press, New York, 461–489

    Google Scholar 

  • Giacobini E., Vernadakis A. and Shahar A. (eds.) (1980). Tissue Culture in Neurobiology, Raven Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Hajos F., Patel A.J. and Balazs R. (1973). Effect of thyroid deficiency on the synaptic organisation of the rat cerebellar cortex. Brain Res., 50, 387–401

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamburger V. and Levi-Montalcini R. (1949). Proliferation, differentiation and degeneration in the spinal ganglia of the chick embryo under normal and experimental conditions. J. Exp. Zool., 111, 457–500

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Honegger P. and Lenoir D. (1980). Triiodothyronine enhancements of neuronal differentiation in aggregating fetal rat brain cells cultured in a chemically defined medium. Brain Res., 199, 425–434

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jorgensen 0.S., Delouvee A., Thiery J.-P. and Edelman G. (1980). The nervous system specific protein D2 is involved in adhesion among neurites from cultured rat ganglia. FEBS Lett., 111, 39–42

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Legrand J. (1977). Morphological and biochemical effects of hormones on the developing nervous system in mammals. In: Brain, Fetal and Infant. Current Research on Normal and Abnormal Development, (S.R. Berenberg, Ed.), Martinus Nijhoff Medical Div., The Hague, 137–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis P.D., Balazs R., Patel A.J. and Johnson A.L. (1975). The effect of undernutrition on all generation in the rat brain. Brain Res., 83, 235–247

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis P.D., Patel A.J., Johnson A.L. and Balazs R. (1976). Effect of thyroid deficiency on cell acquisition in the postnatal brain: a quantitative histological study. Brain Res., 104, 49–62

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patel A.J., Barochovsky 0., Borges S. and Lewis P.D. (1983). Effects of neurotropic drugs on brain cell replication in vivo and in vitro. In: Drugs and Hormones in Brain-Development, (M. Schlumpf and W. Lichtensteiger, Eds.), Karger, Basel (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Patel A.J., Del Vecchio M. and Atkinson D.J. (1978). Effect of undernutrition on the regional development of transmitter enzymes: glutamate decarboxylase and choline acetyltransferase. Dev. Neurosci., 1, 41–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Patel A.J. and Lewis P.D. (1982). Effects on cell proliferation of pharmacological agents acting on the central nervous system. In: Mechanism of Actions of Neurotoxic Substances (K.N. Prasad and A. Vernadakis, Ed.), Raven Press, New York, 181–218

    Google Scholar 

  • Patel A.J., Lewis P.D., Balazs R., Bailey P. and Lai M. (1979). Effects of thyroxine on postnatal cell acquisition in the rat brain. Brain Res., 172, 57–72

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patel A.J., Smith R.M., Kingsbury A.E., Hunt A. and Balazs R. (1980). Effects of thyroid state on brain development: muscarinic acetylcholine and GABA receptors. Brain Res., 198, 389–402

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raff M.C., Fields K.L., Hakomori S.-I., Mirsky R., Pruss R.M. and Winter J. (1979). Cell specific markers for distinguishing and studying neurones and the major classes of glial cells in culture. Brain Res., 174, 283–308

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Romijn H.J., Habets A.M.M.C., Mud M.T. and Walters P.S. (1982). Nerve outgrowth, synaptogenesis and bioelectric activity in fetal rat cerebral cortex tissue cultured in serum-free chemically defined medium. Dev. Brain Res., 2, 583–585

    Google Scholar 

  • Schachner M. (1982). Immunological analysis of cellular heterogeneity in the cerebellum. In: Neuroimmunology, (J. Brooks, Ed.), Plenum Press, New York, 215–250

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith R.M., Patel S.J., Kingsbury A.E., Hunt A. and Balazs R. (1980). Effects of thyroid state on brain development: beta-adrenergic receptors and 5’-nucleotidase activity. Brain Res., 198, 375–387

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tixier-Vidal A., Faivre-Bauman A., Loudes C. and Purymirat J. (1982). Effect of hormones on neuron survival and development in culture. Proc. 3rd Int. Meet. Int. Soc. Dev. Neurosci., (Patras), 215

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodhams P.L., McGovern J., McGregor G.P., O’Shaughnessey D.J., Ghatei M.A., Blank M.A., Adrian T.H., Lee Y., Polak J.M., Bloom S.R. and Balazs R. (1983). Effects of changes in neonatal thyroid status on the development of neuropeptide systems in the rat brain. Int. J. Dev. Neurobiol., (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Altman J. (1976). Experimental reorganisation of the cerebellar cortex. V. Effects of early X-irradiation schedules that allow or prevent the acquisition of basket cells. J. Comp. Neurol., 165, 31–48

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Angeli E., Denman A.R., Harris R.F., Kirman B.H. and Stern J. (1974). Maternal phenylketonuria: a family with seven mentally retarded siblings. Dev.Med.Child.Neurol., 16, 800–807

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bauman M.L. and Kemper T.L. (1982). Morphologic and histoanatomic observations of the brain in untreated human phenylketonuria. Acta Neuropath.(Berl.), 58, 55–63

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clarren S.K., Alford E.C., Sumi S.M., Streissguth A.P. and Smith D.W. (1978). Brain malformations related to prenatal exposure to ethanol. J.Pediat., 92, 64–67

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clarren S.K. and Smith D.W. (1978). The fetal alcohol syndrome. New Engl.J.Med., 298, 1063–1067

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crome L. and Pare C.M.B. (1960). Phenylketonuria: a review and a report of the pathological findings in four cases. J. Ment. Sci., 106, 862–883

    Google Scholar 

  • Crome L. and Stern J. (1972). Pathology of Mental Retardation. 2nd Edn, Churchill-Livingstone, Edinburqh and London

    Google Scholar 

  • Dambska M., Haddad, R., Kozlowski P.B., Lee M.H. and Shek J. (1982). Telencephalic cytoarchitectonics in the brains of rats with graded degrees of micrencephaly. Acta Neuropathol. (Berlin), 58, 203–209

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanson J.W. and Smith D.W. (1975). The fetal hydantoin syndrome. Pediatr., 87, 285–290

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hsia, D. Y.-Y. (1970). Phenylketonuria and its variants. Prog.Med.Genet., 7, 29–68

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones K.L. and Chernoff G.F. (1978). Drugs and chemicals associated with intrauterine growth deficiency. J. Reprod. Med., 21, 365–370

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knox W.E. (1972). Phenylketonuria. In The Metabolic Basis of Inherited Disease, Eds. Stanbury J.B., Wyngaarden J.B. and Fredrickson D.S., 3rd Edn, McGraw-Hill, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Komrower G.M., Sardharwalla I.B., Coutts J.M.J. and Ingham D. (1979). Management of maternal phenylketonuria: an emerging clinical problem. Br.Med.J., 1, 1383–1387

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lipson A.H., Yu J.S., O’Halloran M.T. and Williams R. (1981). Alcohol and phenylketonuria. Lancet, 1, 717–718

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Little R.E. (1977). Moderate alcohol use during pregnancy and decreased infant birth weight. Am.J.Publ.Health, 67, 1154–1156

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Littleton J. (1978). Alcohol and neurotransmitters. Clin.Endocrinol.Metab., 7, 369–384

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olegard R., Sabel K.G., Aronsson M. et al (1979). Effects on the child of alcohol abuse during pregnancy: retrospective and prospective studies. Acta Pediatr.Scand., Suppl. 275, 112–121

    Google Scholar 

  • Peiffer J., Majewski F., Fischbach H., Bierich J.R. and Volk B. (1979). Alcohol embryo- and fetopathy. J.Neurol.Sci., 41, 125–137

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pratt O.E. (1980a). A new approach to the treatment of phenylketonuria. J.Ment.Defic.Res., 24, 203–217

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pratt O.E. (1980b). The fetal alcohol syndrome: transport of nutrients and transfer of alcohol and acetaldehyde from mother to fetus. In Psychopharmacology of Alcohol, Ed. Sandler, M., Raven Press, New York, 229–256

    Google Scholar 

  • Pratt O.E. (1982). Transport inhibition in the pathology of phenylketonuria and other inherited metabolic diseases. J. Inher. Metab. Dis., 5, Suppl. 2, 75–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Redmond G.P. (1981). Effect of ethanol on spontaneous and stimulated growth hormone secretion. Progr. Biochem. Pharmacol., 18, 58–74

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shimada M., Abe Y., Yamano T., Ohta S., Yamazaki S. and Ohya N. (1982). The pathogenesis of abnormal cytoarchitecture in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of the mouse treated transplacentally with cytosine arabinoside. Acta Neuropathol. (Berlin), 58, 159–167

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith I., Erdohazi M. et al (1979). Fetal damage despite low-phenylalanine diet after conception in a phenylketonuric woman. Lancet, i, 17–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Smithells R.W., Sheppard S., Schorah C.J., Seller M.J., Nevin N.C., Harris R., Read A.P. and Fielding D.W. (1980). Possible prevention of neural tube defects by periconceptual vitamin supplementation. Lancet, i, 339–340

    Google Scholar 

  • Thadani P.V. and Schanberg S.N. (1979). Effects of maternal ethanol ingestion on serum growth hormone in the developing rat. Neuropharm., 18, 821–826

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tze W.J., Friesen H.G. and MacLeod P.M. (1976). Growth hormone response in fetal alcohol syndrome. Arch.Dis.Childh., 51, 703–706

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tze W.J. and Lee M. (1975). Adverse effects of maternal alcohol consumption on pregnancy and fetal growth in rats. Nature, 257. 479–480

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Thiel G.H., Gavaler J.S., Lester R. and Sherrins R.J. (1978). Alcohol-induced ovarian failure in the rat. J. Clin. Inv., 61, 624–632

    Google Scholar 

  • Huttenlocher P.R. (1974). Dendritic development in neocortex of children with mental defects and infantile spasms. Neurology, 24, 203

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Purpura G.P. (1975). Dendritic differentiation in human cerebral cortex: Normal and aberrant patterns. Kreutzberg G.W. (Ed.), Advances in Neurology, 12, New York, Raven Press, 91–116

    Google Scholar 

  • Volpe J.J. (1981). Neurology of the newborn. Schaffer A.J. and Markowitz M. (Eds.), Major Problems in Clinical Paediatrics, 22, Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrell R.F., Capp R.H., Davis D.R., Peerless J. and Ravitz L.R. (1981). Can nutritional supplements help mentally retarded children? An exploratory study. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 78, 574–578

    Google Scholar 

  • Mann D.M.A., Lincoln J., Yates P.O. and Brennan C.M. (1980). Monoamine metabolism in Down’s syndrome. Lancet, ii, 1366–1367

    Google Scholar 

  • Reid A.H. and Aungle P.G. (1974). Dementia in ageing mental defectives. A clinical psychiatric study. J.Ment.Defic.Res.. 18, 15

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rundle (1983). Personal communication

    Google Scholar 

  • Takashima, S., Berker, L.E., Armstrong, D.L. and Chan, F.N. (1981). Abnormal development in the visual cortex of the human foetus and infant with Down’s syndrome. A quantitative and qualitative Golgi study. Brain Research, 225, 1–21

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. A. N. Davison
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. The Department of Child Health, University of Manchester, UK

    John Dobbing

  2. The Department of Psychology, The University, Hull, UK

    A. D. B. Clarke

  3. The Bethlem Royal Hospital, UK

    J. A. Corbett

  4. The Hester Adrian Research Centre, University of Manchester, UK

    J. Hogg

  5. The Newcomen Centre, Guy’s Hospital, London, UK

    R. O. Robinson

Copyright information

© 1984 The Royal Society of Medicine

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Davison, A.N. (1984). Neurobiology and neurochemistry of the developing brain. In: Dobbing, J., Clarke, A.D.B., Corbett, J.A., Hogg, J., Robinson, R.O. (eds) Scientific Studies in Mental Retardation. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-06870-8_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-06870-8_6

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-349-06872-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-349-06870-8

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation