Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Possible Physiological Roles of the Enkephalins and Endorphins

  • Chapter
Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics

Abstract

In the evaluation of the possible physiological roles of new neurotransmitters or neuromodulators, it is necessary to understand the mechanisms underlying their biosynthesis, release and metabolism, and interactions with their receptors. There is now a considerable amount of information on these aspects with regard to the endogenous opioid peptides, which has recently been reviewed from the basic and clinical points of view (Kosterlitz & McKnight, 1980, 1981). For this reason, it is intended to deal in this paper mainly with those concepts that are important for an understanding of the principles governing the possible physiological functions of the enkephalins and endorphins.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 74.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Akil, H., Richardson, D. E., Barchas, J. D. & Li, C. H. (1978a). Appearance of β-endorphin-like immunoreactivity in human ventricular cerebrospinal fluid upon analgesic electrical stimulation. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 75, 5170–5172.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Akil, H., Richardson, D. E., Hughes, J. & Barchas, J. D. (1978b). Enkephalin-like material elevated in ventricular cerebrospinal fluid of pain patients after analgetic focal stimulation. Science, 201, 463–465.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Akil, H., Watson, S. J., Barchas, J. D. & Li, C. H. (1979). β-endorphin immunoreactivity in rat and human blood: radioimmunoassay, comparative levels and physiological alterations. Life Sci., 24, 1659–1666.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Akil, H., Watson, S. J., Sullivan, S. & Barchas, J. D. (1978c). Enkephalin-like material in normal human CSF: measurement and levels. Life Sci., 23, 121–126.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Almay, B. G. L., Johansson, F., von Knorring, L., Terenius, L. & Wahlström, A. (1978). Endorphins in chronic pain. I. Differences in CSF endorphin levels between organic and psychogenic pain syndromes. Pain, 5, 153–162.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arndt, J. O. & Freye, E. (1979). Opiate antagonist reverses the cardiovascular effects of inhalation anaesthesia. Nature, 277, 399–400.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Atweh, S. F. & Kuhar, M. J. (1977a). Autoradiographic localization of opiate receptors in rat brain. I. Spinal cord and lower medulla. Brain Res., 124, 53–67.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Atweh, S. F. & Kuhar, M. J. (1977b). Autoradiographic localization of opiate receptors in rat brain. II. The brain stem. Brain Res., 129, 1–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Atweh, S. F. & Kuhar, M. J. (1977c). Autoradiographic localization of opiate receptors in rat brain. III. The telencephalon. Brain Res., 134, 393–405.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Austen, B. M., Smyth, D. G. & Snell, C. R. (1977). γ endorphin, a endorphin and Metenkephalin are formed extracellularly from lipotropin C fragment. Nature, 269, 619–621.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barclay, R. K. & Phillips, M. A. (1978). Inhibition of the enkephalin degradation of leuenkephalin by puromycin. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 81, 1119–1123.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beaumont, A., Dell, A., Hughes, J., Malfroy, B. & Morris, H. R. (1980). Studies on possible precursors for the enkephalins. In Endogenous and Exogenous Opiate Agonists and Antagonists, ed. Way, E. L. pp. 209–212. New York: Pergamon Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Belenky, G. L. & Holaday, J. W. (1979). The opiate antagonist naloxone modifies the effects of electroconvulsive shock (ECS) on respiration, blood pressure and heart rate. Brain Res., 177, 414–417.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belluzzi, J. C. & Stein, L. (1977). Enkephalin may mediate euphoria and drive-reduction reward. Nature, 266, 556–558.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bisset, G. W., Chowdrey, H. S. & Feldberg, W. (1978). Release of vasopressin by enkephalin. Brit. J. Pharmac., 62, 370–371.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bläsig, J., Bäuerle, U. & Herz, A. (1979). Endorphin-induced hyperthermia: characterization of the exogenously and endogenously induced effects. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Arch. Pharmac., 309, 137–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolme, P., Fuxe, K., Agnati, L. F., Bradley, R. & Smythies, J. (1978). Cardiovascular effects of morphine and opioid peptides following intracisternal administration in chloralose-anaesthetized rats. Eur. J. Pharmac., 48, 319–324.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Browne, R. G., Derrington, D. C. & Segal, D. S. (1979). Comparison of opiate- and opioid-peptide-induced immobility. Life Sci., 24, 933–942.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burbach, J. P. H, Loeber, J. G., Verhoef, J., Wiegant, V. M., de Kloet, E. R. & de Wied, D. (1980). Selective conversion of γ-endorphin into peptides related to γ-and α-endorphin. Nature, 283, 96–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, K.-J., Cooper, B. R., Hazum, E. & Cuatrecasas, P. (1979). Multiple opiate receptors: different regional distribution in the brain and differential binding of opiates and opioid peptides. Mol. Pharmac., 16, 91–104.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, W.-C., Jagannadha Rao, A. & Li, C. H. (1978). Rate of disappearance of human γ-lipotropin and γ-endorphin in adult male rats as estimated by radioimmunoassay. Int. J. Peptide Protein Res., 11, 93–94.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cicero, T. J., Schainker, B. A. & Meyer, E. R. (1979). Endogenous opioids participate in the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-luteinizing hormone axis and testosterone’s negative feedback control of luteinizing hormone. Endocrinology, 104, 1286–1291.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clement-Jones, V., Lowry, P. J., Rees, L. H. & Besser, G M. (1980). Met-enkephalin circulates in human plasma. Nature, 283, 295–297.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corbett, A. D., Sosa, R. P., McKnight, A. T. & Kosterlitz, H. W. (1980). Effects of electrical stimulation on the enkephalins in guinea-pig small intestine. Eur. J. Pharmac., in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Csontos, K., Rust, M., Höllt, V., Mahr, W., Kromer, W. & Teschemacher, H. J. (1979). Elevated plasma γ-endorphin levels in pregnant women and their neonates. Life Sci., 25, 835–844.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cusan, L., Dupont, A., Kledzik, G. S., Labrie, F., Coy, D. H. & Schally, A. V. (1977). Potent prolactin and growth hormone releasing activity of more analogues of met-enkephalin. Nature, 268, 544–547.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duggan, A. W., Griersmith, B. T., Headley, P. M. & Hall, J. G (1979). Lack of effect by substance P at sites in the substantia gelatinosa where Met-enkephalin reduces the transmission of nociceptive impulses. Neurosci. Lett., 12, 313–317.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duggan, A. W., Hall, J. G & Headley, P. M. (1977). Enkephalins and dorsal horn neurones of the cat: effects on responses to noxious and innocuous skin stimuli. Brit. J. Pharmac., 61, 399–408.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dupont, A., Cusan, L., Garon, M., Alvarado-Urbina, G & Labrie, F. (1977). Extremely rapid degradation of [3H]-methionine-enkephalin by various rat tissues in vivo and in vitro. Life Sci., 21, 907–914.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enjalbert, A., Ruberg, M., Arancia, S., Priam, M. & Kordon, C. (1979). Endogenous opiates block dopamine inhibition of prolactin secretion in vitro. Nature, 280, 595–597.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faden, A. I. & Holaday, J. W. (1979). Opiate antagonists: a role in the treatment of hypovolemic shock. Science, 205, 317–318.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Firemark, H. M. & Weitzman, R. E. (1979). Effects of γ-endorphin, morphine and naloxone on\ arginine vasopressin secretion and the electroencephalogram. Neuroscience, 4, 1895–1902.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foley, K. M., Kourides, I. A., Inturrissi, C. E., Kaiko, R. F., Zaroulis, C. G., Posner, J. B., Houde, R. W. & Li, C. H. (1979). γ-endorphin: Analgesic and hormonal effects in humans. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 76, 5377–5381.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frenk, H., McCarty, B. & Liesbeskind, J. C. (1978). Different brain areas mediate the analgesic and epileptic properties of enkephalin. Science, 200, 335–337.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillan, M. G. C., Kosterlitz, H. W. & Paterson, S. J. (1980). Comparison of the binding characteristics of tritiated opiates and opioid peptides. Brit. J. Pharmac., in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, A. & Hilgard, E. R. (1975). Failure of the opiate antagonist naloxone to modify hypnotic analgesia. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA. 72, 2041–2043.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graf, L., Kennessy, A., Patthy, A., Grynbaum, A., Marks, N. & Lajtha, A. (1979). Cathepsin D generates γ-endorphin from γ-endorphin. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 193, 101–109.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grandison, L. & Guidotti, A. (1977). Regulation of prolactin release by endogenous opiates. Nature, 270, 357–359.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grynbaum, A., Kastin, A. J., Coy, D. H. & Marks, N. (1977). Breakdown of enkephalin and endorphin analogs by brain extracts. Brain Res. Bull, 2, 479–484.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guidotti, A. & Grandison, L. (1978). Participation of hypothalamic endorphins in the control of prolactin release. In The Endorphins, Advances in Biochemical Psychopharmacology. Vol. 18. ed., Costa, E. & Trabucchi, M., pp. 191–198. New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guyon, A., Roques, B. P., Guyon, F., Foucault, A., Perdrisot, R., Swerts, J.-P. & Schwartz, J.-C. (1979). Enkephalin degradation in mouse brain studied by a new H.P.L.C. method: further evidence for the involvement of carboxypeptidase. Life Sci., 25, 1605–1612.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hambrook, J. M., Morgan, B. A., Ranee, M. J. & Smith, C. F. C. (1976). Mode of deactivation of the enkephalins by rat and human plasma and rat brain homogenates. Nature, 262, 782–783.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, R. L., Bennett, G. J., Newlon, P. G. & Mayer, D. J. (1978). Behavioral and physiological studies of non-narcotic analgesia in the rat elicited by certain environmental stimuli. Brain Res., 155, 69–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, G., Hughes, J. & Kosterlitz, H. W. (1978). In vitro release of leu- and met-enkephalin from the corpus striatum. Nature,271, 677–679.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henriksen, S. J., Bloom, F. E., McCoy, F., Ling, N. & Guillemin, R. (1978). γ-endorphin induces nonconvulsive limbic seizures. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 75, 5221–5225.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hiller, J. M., Pearson, J. & Simon, E. J. (1973). Distribution of stereo-specific binding of the potent narcotic analgesic etorphine in the human brain: Predominance in the limbic system. Res. Commun, chem. Pathol. Pharmac., 6, 1052–1062.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hökfelt, T., Ljungdahl, A., Terenius, L., Elade, R. & Nilsson, G. (1977). Immunohistochemical analysis of peptide pathways possibly related to pain and analgesia: Enkephalin and substance P. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 74, 3081–3085.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holaday, J. W. & Faden, A. I. (1978). Naloxone reversal of endotoxin hypotension suggests role of endorphins in shock. Nature., 275, 450–451.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holaday, J. W. & Faden, A. I. (1980). Naloxone acts at central opiate receptors to reverse hypotension, hypothermia and hypoventilation in spinal shock. Brain Res., 189, 295–299.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Höllt, V., Müller, O. A. & Fahlbusch, R. (1979). γ-endorphin in human plasma: basal and pathologically elevated levels. Life Sci, 25, 37–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hosobuchi, Y., Rossier, J., Bloom, F. E. & Guillemin, R. (1979). Stimulation of human periaqueductal gray for pain relief increases immunoreactive γ-endorphin in ventricular fluid. Science, 203, 279–281.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson, M., Kosterlitz, H. W., Leslie, F. M., Waterfield, A. A. & Terenius, L. (1975). Assessment in the guinea-pig ileum and mouse vas deferens of benzomorphans which have strong antinociceptive activity but do not substitute for morphine in the dependent monkey. Brit. J. Pharmac., 55, 541–546.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Iversen, L. L., Iversen, S. D., Bloom, F. E., Vargo, T. & Guillemin, R. (1978). Release of enkephalin from rat globus pallidus in vitro. Nature, 271, 679–681.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Janowsky, D., Judd, L., Huey, L., Roitman, N. & Parker, D. (1979). Naloxone effects on serum growth hormone and prolactin in man. Psychopharmac., 65, 95–97.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jessell, T. M. & Iversen, L. L. (1977). Opiate analgesics inhibit substance P release from rat trigeminal nucleus. Nature, 268, 549–551.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kimura, S., Lewis, R. V., Stern, A. S., Rossier, J., Stein, S. & Udenfriend, S. (1980). Probable precursors of [Leu]enkephalin and [Met]enkephalin in adrenal medulla: Peptides of 3–5 kilodaltons. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 77, 1681–1685.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knight, M. & Klee, W. A. (1978). The relationship between enkephalin degradation and opiate receptor occupancy. J. biol. Chem., 253, 3843–3847.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kosterlitz, H. W., Lord, J. A. H., Paterson, S. J. & Waterfield, A. A. (1980). Effects of changes in the structure of enkephalins and narcotic analgesic drugs on their interactions with μ-receptors and δ-receptors. Brit. J. Pharmac., 68, 333–342.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kosterlitz, H. W. & McKnight, A. T. (1980). Modulatory effects of opioid peptides on neurophysiological functions. In Progress in Sensory Physiology, ed., Ottoson, D. Berlin: Springer, in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kosterlitz, H. W. & McKnight, A. T. (1981). Endorphins and enkephalins. In Advances in Internal Medicine, Vol. 26, ed., Siperstein, M. D. & Stollerman, G. H. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhar, M. J., Pert, C. B. & Snyder, S. H. (1973). Regional distribution of opiate receptor binding in monkey and human brain. Nature, 245, 447–450.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawson, E. E., Waldrop, T. G. & Eldridge, F. C. (1979). Naloxone enhances respiratory output in cats. J. appl. Physiol, 47, 1105–1111.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lemaire, I., Tseng, R. & Lemaire, S. (1978). Systemic administration of γ-endorphin: Potent hypotensive effect involving a serotonergic pathway. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 75, 6240–6242.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, J. D., Gordon, N. C., Bornstein, J. C. & Fields, H. L. (1979). Role of pain in placebo analgesia. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 76, 3528–3531.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, R. V., Stein, S., Gerber, L. D., Rubinstein, M. & Udenfriend, S. (1979a). High molecular weight opioid containing proteins in striatum. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 75, 4021–4023.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, R. V., Stern, A. S., Rossier, J., Stein, S. & Udenfriend, S. (1979b). Putative enkephalin precursors in bovine and renal medulla. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 89, 822–829.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindblom, U. & Tegnér, R. (1979). Are the endorphins active in clinical pain stress? Narcotic antagonism in chronic pain patients. Pain, 7, 65–68.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liotta, A. S., Gildersleeve, D., Brownstein, M. J. & Krieger, D. T. (1979). Biosynthesis in vitro of immunoreactive 31, 000 dalton corticotropin/γ-endorphin-like material by bovine hypothalamus. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 76, 1448–1452.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, J. A. H., Waterfield, A. A., Hughes, J. & Kosterlitz, H. W. (1977). Endogenous opioid peptides: multiple agonists and receptors. Nature, 267, 495–499.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg, J. M., Hökfelt, T., Fahrenkrug, J., Nilsson, G. & Terenius, L. (1979). Peptides in the cat carotid body (glomus caroticum): VIP-, enkephalin-, and substance P-like immuno-reactivity. Acta physiol. Scand., 107, 279–281.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McKnight, A. T., Hughes, J. & Kosterlitz, H. W. (1979). Synthesis of enkephalins by guinea-pig striatum in vitro. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 205, 199–207.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McKnight, A. T., Sosa, R. P., Corbett, A. D. & Kosterlitz, H. W. (1980). Enkephalin precursors from guinea-pig myenteric plexus. In Endogenous and Exogenous Opiate Agonists and Antagonists, ed. Way, E. L. pp. 213–216. New York: Pergamon Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • McKnight, A. T., Sosa, R. P., Hughes, J. & Kosterlitz, H. W. (1978). Biosynthesis and release of enkephalins. In Characteristics and Function of Opioids. Developments in Neuroscience. Vol. 4. ed. van Ree, J. M. & Terenius, L., pp. 259–269. Amsterdam: Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mains, R. E. & Eipper, B. A. (1978). Coordinate synthesis of corticotropins and endorphins by mouse pituitary tumour cells. J. biol. Chem., 253, 651–655.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malfroy, B., Swerts, J. P., Guyon, A., Roques, B. P. & Schwartz, J. C. (1978). High-affinity enkephalin-degrading peptidase in brain is increased after morphine. Nature, 276, 523–526.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malfroy, B., Swerts, J.-P., Llorens, C. & Schwartz, J.-C. (1979). Regional distribution of a high affinity enkephalin-degrading peptidase (“enkephalinase”) and effects of lesions suggest localization in the vicinity of opiate receptors in brain. Neurosci. Lett., 11, 329–334.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, N., Grynbaum, A. & Neidle, A. (1977). On the degradation of enkephalins and endorphins by rat and mouse brain extracts. Biochem. Biophvs. Res. Commun., 74, 1552–1559.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, J. B., Tolis, G., Woods, I. & Guyda, H. (1979). Failure of naloxone to influence physiological growth hormone and prolactin secretion. Brain Res., 168, 210–215.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, W. R. (1967). Opioid antagonists. Pharmac. Rev., 19, 463–521.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, W. R., Eades, C. G., Thompson, J. A., Huppler, R. E. & Gilbert, P. E. (1976). The effects of morphine- and naloxone-like drugs in the nondependent and morphine-dependent chronic spinal dog. J. Pharmac. exp. Ther., 197, 517–532.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, D. J. (1979). Endogenous analgesia systems: neural and behavioural mechanisms. In Advances in Pain Research and Therapy. Vol. 3, ed. Bonica, J. J., Liebeskind, J. C. & Albe-Fessard, D. G., pp. 385–410. New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, D. J., Price, D. D. & Rafii, A. (1977). Antagonism of acupuncture analgesia in man by the narcotic antagonist naloxone. Brain Res., 121, 368–372.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meek, J. L., Yang, H.-Y. T. & Costa, E. (1977). Enkephalin catabolism in vitro and in vivo. Neuropharmac., 16, 151–154.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mello, N. K. & Mendelson, J. H. (1978). Self-administration of an enkephalin analog by rhesus monkeys. Pharmac. Biochem. Behav., 9, 579–586.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mendelson, J. H., Ellingboe, J., Keuhule, J. C. & Mello, N. K. (1979). Effects of naltrexone on mood and neuroendocrine function in normal male adults. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 3, 231–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nakai, Y., Nakao, K., Oki, S., Imura, H. & Li, C. H. (1978). Presence of immunoreactive γ-endorphin in plasma of patients with Nelson’s syndrome and Addison’s disease. Life Sci, 23, 2293–2298.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nakanishi, S., Inoue, A., Kita, T., Nakamura, M., Chang, A. C. Y., Cohen, S. N. & Numa, S. (1979). Nucleotide sequence of cloned cDNA for bovine corticotropin-γ-lipotropin precursor. Nature, 278, 423–427

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Osborne, H., Höllt, V. & Herz, A. (1978). Potassium-induced release of enkephalins from rat striatal slices. Eur. J. Pharmac., 48, 219–221.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oyama, T., Jin, T., Yamaya, R., Ling, N. & Guillemin, R. (1980). Profound analgesic effects of γ-endorphin in man. Lancet, 1, 122–124.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pert, C. B. & Taylor, D. (1980). Type 1 and Type 2 opiate receptors: a subclassification scheme based upon GTP’s differential effects on binding. In Endogenous and Exogenous Opiate Agonists and Antagonists, ed. Way, E. L. pp. 87–90. New York: Pergamon Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Pezalla, P. D., Seidah, N. G., Benjannet, S., Crine, P., Lis, M. & Chrétien, M. (1978). Biosynthesis of beta-endorphin, beta-lipotropin and the putative ACTH-LPH precursor in the frog pars intermedia. Life Sci, 23, 2281–2292.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rivier, C., Vale, W., Ling, N., Brown, M. & Guillemin, R. (1977). Stimulation in vivo of the secretion of prolactin and growth hormone by γ-endorphin. Endocrinology, 100, 238–240.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roemer, D., Buescher, H. H., Hill, R. C., Pless, J., Bauer, W., Cardinaux, F., Closse, A., Hauser, D. & Huguenin, R. (1977). A synthetic enkephalin analogue with prolonged parenteral and oral analgesic activity. Nature, 268, 547–549.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rossier, J., Lewis, R. V., Stern, A. S., Stein, S. & Udenfriend, S. (1979). Bovine adrenals contain high levels of enkephalins and even higher levels of several putative enkephalin precursors. Abs. Soc. Neuroscience, 5, 538.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultzberg, M., Hökfelt, T., Lundberg, J. M., Terenius, L., Elfvin, L.-G. & Elde, R. (1978). Enkephalin-like immunoreactivity in nerve terminals in sympathetic ganglia and adrenal medulla and in adrenal medullary gland cells. Acta physiol. Scand., 103, 475–477.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaar, C. J., Frederickson, R. C. A., Dininger, N. B. & Jackson, L. (1977). Enkephalin analogues and naloxone modulate the release of growth hormone and prolactin — evidence forregulation by an endogenous opioid peptide in brain. Life Sci, 21, 853–860.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sjölund, B., Terenius, L. & Eriksson, M. (1977). Increased cerebrospinal fluid levels of ndorphins after electroacupuncture. Acta physiol. Scand., 100, 382–384.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T. W., Hughes, J., Kosterlitz, H. W. & Sosa, R. P. (1976). Enkephalins: isolation, istribution and function. In Opiates and Endogenous Opioid Peptides, ed. Kosterlitz, H. W. pp. 57–62. Amsterdam: Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sosa, R. P., McKnight, A. T., Hughes, J. & Kosterlitz, H. W. (1977). Incorporation of labelled amino acids into the enkephalins. FEBS Lett., 84, 195–198.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stacher, G., Bauer, P., Steinringer, H., Schreiber, E. & Schmierer, G. (1979). Effects of the synthetic enkephalin analogue FK 33–824 on pain threshold and pain tolerance in man. Pain, 7, 159–172.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, L. & Belluzzi, J. D. (1979). Brain endorphins: possible mediators of pleasurable states. In Endorphins in Mental Health Research, ed. Usdin, E., Bunney, W. E. & Kline, N. S. pp. 375–389. London: Macmillan Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Suda, T., Liotta, A. S. & Krieger, D. T. (1978). γ-endorphin is not detectable in plasma from normal human subjects. Science, 202, 221–223.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, S., Akil, H. & Barchas, J. C. (1979). In vitro degradation of enkephalin: evidence for cleavage of the Gly-Phe bond. Commun. Psychopharmac., 2, 525–531.

    Google Scholar 

  • Székely, J. I., Rónai, A. Z., Dunai-Kovács, Z., Miglécz, E., Berzétei, I., Bajusz, S. & Gráf, L. (1977). (D-Met2, Pro5)-Enkephalinamide: a potent morphine-like analgesic. Eur. J. Pharmac., 43, 293–294.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Urca, G., Frenk, H., Liebeskind, J. C. & Taylor, A. N. (1977). Morphine and enkephalin: analgesic and epileptic properties. Science, 197, 83–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Viveros, O. H., Diliberto, E. J., Hazum, E. & Chang, K.-J. (1979). Met- and leu-enkephalins and met-enkephalin-like peptides in the adrenal medulla: studies on storage, secretion and synthesis. Abs. Soc. Neuroscience, 5, 543.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vogel, Z. & Alstein, M. (1977). The adsorption of enkephalin to porous polystyrene beads: a simple assay for enkephalin hydrolysis. FEBS Lett, 80, 332–336.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • von Knorring, L., Almay, B. G. L., Johansson, F. & Terenius, L. (1978). Pain perception and endorphin levels in cerebrospinal fluid. Pain, 5, 359–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, J. M., Sandman, C. A., Berntson, G. G., McGivern, R. F., Coy, D. H. & Kastin, A. J. (1977). Endorphin analogs with potent and long-lasting analgesic effects. Pharmac. Biochem. Behav., 7, 543–548.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, S. J., Akil, H., Berger, P. A. & Barchas, J. D. (1979). Some observations on the opiate peptides and schizophrenia. J. gen. Psychiat., 36, 35–41.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, H.-Y. T., Costa, E., Di Giulio, A. M., Fratta, W. & Hong, J. S. (1979). Met-enkephalin (ME)-like peptides in bovine adrenal gland: characterization of possible ME precursors. Fed. Proc., 38, Abs. 711.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Unit for Research on Addictive Drugs, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK

    H. W. Kosterlitz

Authors
  1. H. W. Kosterlitz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

P. Turner C. Padgham A. Hedges

Copyright information

© 1980 The contributors

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Kosterlitz, H.W. (1980). Possible Physiological Roles of the Enkephalins and Endorphins. In: Turner, P., Padgham, C., Hedges, A. (eds) Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-05952-2_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation