Abstract
The main reason for different insurance premiums and benefits is the use of different statistically proven risk factors in actuarial calculations for individuals. Basing its ruling on European Union Directive 2004/113/EC, the European Court of Justice on 1 March 2011 concluded that any gen der-based discrimination is prohibited, so gender equality in the European Union (EU) must be ensured from 21 December 2012. Until then, gender-specific premium differentiation was allowed in most EU Member States for risks that are strongly linked to gender. We discuss the relevance of price differentiation criteria from the point of view of insurers, regulators and ethicists, and reflect on the degree of acceptance of such price differentiation by consumers, which is assessed empirically through an international consumer survey conducted in the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy and Switzerland. The perception of risk factors and of effective gender-related price differences is considered with respect to motor, annuity, term life and health insurance. Finally, we discuss possible consequences of the new regulation for the insurance industry.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Abbring, J.H., Heckman, J.J., Chiappori, P.-A. and Pinquet, J. (2003) ‘Adverse selection and moral hazard in insurance: Can dynamic data help to distinguish?’ Journal of the European Economic Association 1(2–3): 512–521.
Akerlof, G. (1970) ‘The market for ‘lemons’: Quality uncertainty and the market mechanism’, The Quarterly J ournal of Economics 84(3): 488–500.
Arrow, K.J. (1963) ‘Uncertainty and the welfare economics of medical care’, The American Economic Review 53(5): 941–973.
Arvidsson, S. (2010) ‘Essays on asymmetric information in the automobile insurance market’, Ph.D. thesis, Örebro University.
Association of British Insurers (ABI) (2010) The Use of Gender in Insurance Pricing: Analysing the Impact of a Potential Ban on the Use of Gender as a Rating Factor, ABI Research Paper No. 24, London: Association of British Insurers.
Benston, G.J. (1982) ‘The economics of gender discrimination in employee fringe benefits: Manhart revisited’, The University of Chicago Law Review 49(2): 489–542.
Benston, G.J. (1983) ‘Discrimination and economic efficiency in employee fringe benefits: A clarification of issues and a response to professors Brilmayer, Laycock, and Sullivan’, The University of Chicago Law Review 50(1): 250–279.
Borch, K. (1984) ‘Equilibrium premiums in an insurance market’, The Journal of Risk and Insurance 51(3): 468–476.
Borenstein, S. (1989) ‘The economics of costly risk sorting in competitive insurance markets’, International Review of Law and Economics 9(1): 25–39.
Brilmayer, L., Hekeler, R.W., Laycock, D. and Sullivan, T.A. (1980) ‘Sex discrimination in employer-sponsored insurance plans: A legal and demographic analysis’, The University of Chicago Law Review 47(3): 505–560.
Brilmayer, L., Laycock, D. and Sullivan, T.A. (1983) ‘The efficient use of group averages as nondiscrimination: A re joinder to professor Benston’, The University of Chicao Law Review 50(1): 222–249.
Britz, G. (2008) Einzelfallgerechtigkeit versus Generalisierung: Verfassungsrechtliche Grenzen statistischer Di skriminierung, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.
Brown, R.L. (1995) ‘Recent Canadian human rights decisions having an impact on gender-based risk classification systems’, Journal of Actuarial Practice 3(1): 171–191.
Burri, S. and Prechal, S. (2010) EU Gender Equality Law: Update, 2010, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, from http://www.ec.europa.eu /justice/gender-equality/files/dgjustice_eugenderequalitylaw_update_2010_fi nal24february2011_en.pdf.
Buzzacchi, L. and Valletti, T. (2005) ‘Strategic price discrimination in compulsory insurance markets’, The Geneva Risk and Insurance Review 30(1): 71–97.
Centre for Equality Rights in Accommodation (CERA) (2008) Human Rights in Housing in Canada: An Advocate’s Gui de, p. 9, from http://www.equalityrights.org /cher/National%20Guide%20English%20Final.pdf.
Chiappori, P.-A. and Salanie, B. (2000) ‘Testing for asymmetric information in insurance markets’, Journal of Political Economy 108(1): 56–78.
Christiansen, H. (1983) ‘Equality and equilibrium: Weaknesses of the overlap argument for unisex pension plans’, The Journal of Risk and Insurance 50(4): 670–680.
Civic Consulting (2010a) Study on the Use of Age, Disability, Sex, Religion or Belief, Racial or Ethnic Origin and Sexual Orientation in Financial Services, in Particular in the Insurance and Banking Sectors, Part I: Main Rep ort, Technical Report, Brussels: European Commission.
Civic Consulting (2010b) Study on the Use of Age, Disability, Sex, Religion or Belief, Racial or Ethnic Origin and Sexual Orientation in Financial Services, in Particular in the Insurance and Banking Sectors, Part II: Country Reports, Technical Report, Brussels: European Commission.
Civic Consulting (2010c) Study on the Use of Age, Disability, Sex, Religion or Belief, Racial or Ethnic Origin and Sexual Orientation in Financial Services, in Particular in the Insurance and Banking Sectors, Part III: Annexes, Technical Report, Brussels: European Commission.
Cohen, A. and Siegelman, P. (2009) Testing for adverse selection in insurance markets, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 15586, Cambridge: NBER.
Commission of the EC (2003) Proposal for a Council Directive Implementing the Principle of Equal Treatment between Women and Men in the Access to and Supply of Goods and Services, EUR-Lex 5200 3PC0657.
Commission of the EC (2008) Renewed Social Agenda: Opportunities, Access and Solidarity in 21st Century Europe, EUR-Lex 52008DC0412.
Council of the EC (1975) ‘Council Directive 75/117/EEC’, Official Journal of the European Communities L45: 19–20.
Council of the EU (2000a) ‘Council Directive 2000/43/EC’, Official Journal of the European Communities L180: 22–26.
Council of the EU (2000b) ‘Council Directive 2000/78/EC’, Official Journal of the European Communities L303: 16–22.
Council of the EU (2004) ‘Council Directive 2004/113/EC’, Official Journal of European Communities L373: 37–43.
Crocker, K. and Snow, A. (1986) ‘The efficiency effects of categorical discrimination in the insurance industry’, Journal of Political Economy 94(2): 321–344.
Curry, C. and O’Connell, A. (2004) An analysis of unisex annuity rates, equal opportunities, Commission Working Paper No. 16.
Dawkins, R. (2011) Gender and Insurance Pricing, from http://www.europe-economics.com /blogpost/6/gender-and insurance-pricing.htm.
Deutsche Rück (2011) ‘Unisex: Absicherung von Schwankungen im Geschlechtermix’, Daten.Fakten.Meinungen., No. 2/11, Düsseldorf: Deutsche Rückversicherung AG.
Ebner, M.D. (2010) Preispolitik in der Kompositversicherung. Karlsruhe: Verlag Versicherungswirtschaft.
Esping-Andersen, G. (1990) The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
European Commission (2012) ‘Guidelines on the application of Council Directive 2004/113/EC to insurance, in the light of the judgement the Court of Justice of the European Union in Case C-236/09 (Test-Achats)’, Official Journal of the European Union C11: 1–11.
European Court of Justice (ECJ) (2011) Judgement of the Court, Case C-236/09.
Farny, D. (2011) Versicherungsbetriebslehre, 5th edition, Karlsruhe: Verlag Versicherungswirtschaft.
Finkelstein, A., Poterba, J. and Rothschild, C. (2009) ‘Redistribution by insurance market regulation: Analyzing a ban on gender-based retirement annuities’, Journal of Financial Economics 91(1): 38–58.
Ford, J. and Reifner, U. (1992) Banking for People: Social Banking and New Poverty Consumer Debts and Unemployment in Europe-National Reports, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
Gatzert, N., Hoermann, G. and Schmeiser, H. (2012) ‘Optimal risk classification with an application to substandard annuities’, North American Actuarial Journal 16(4): 462–486.
German Federal Insurance Supervisory Office (1995) BAV Rundschreiben 6/95: Motor Vehicle Insurance—Discrimination Against Foreigners.
Groupe Consultatif Actuariel Européen (2011) Use of Age and Disability as Rating Factors in Insurance: Why Are They Used and What Would Be the Implications of Restricting Their Use?, position paper, December.
Hedges, B. (1977) ‘Gender discrimination in pension plans: Comment’, The Journal of Risk and Insurance 44(1): 141–144.
Hemenway, D. (1990) ‘Propitious selection’, The Quarterly Journal of Economics 105(4): 1063–1069.
Hickman, J. (1983) ‘Pensions and sex’, The Journal of Risk and Insurance 50(4): 681–687.
Homburg, C. and Koschate, N. (2005) ‘Behavioral pricing—Forschung im Überblick, Teil 1: Grundlagen, Preisinformationsaufnahme und Preisinformationsbeurteilung’, Zeitschrift für Betriebswirtschaft 75(4):383–423.
Homburg, C., Koschate, N. and Hoyer, W.D. (2005) ‘Do satisfied customers really pay more? A study of the relationship between customer satisfaction and willingness to pay’, Journal of Marketing 69(2): 84–96.
Hoy, M. (1982) ‘Categorizing risks in the insurance industry’, The Quarterly Journal of Economics 97(2): 321–336.
Jannott, E. (1994) Der Grundsatz der Gleichbehandlung in der Versicherungswirtschaft, in U. Hübner (ed.) Recht und Ökonomie der Versicherung: Festschrift für Egon Lorenz, Karlsruhe: Verlag Versicherungswirtschaft, pp. 341–362.
Kelly, M. and Nielson, N. (2006) ‘Age as a variable in insurance pricing and risk classification’, The Geneva Papers on Risk and In surance—Issues and Practice 31(2): 212–232.
Kimball, S.L. (1979) ‘Reverse sex discrimination: Manhart’, American Bar Foundation Research Journal 1979(1): 85–139.
Kimball, S.L. (1980) ‘Reprise on Manhart’, American Bar Foundation Research Journal 1980(4): 915–920.
Kokott, J. (2010) Opinion of Advocate General Kokott. Case C-236/09. Association Belge des Consommateurs Test-Achats ASBL and others.
Koller, P. (2001) Theorie des Rechts: Eine Einführung, 2nd edition, Wien: Bohlau Verlag.
Laycock, D. and Sullivan, T.A. (1981) ‘Sex discirmination as “actuarial equality”: A rejoinder to Kimball’, American Bar Foundation Research Journal 6(1): 221–228.
Martin, G. (1977) ‘Gender discrimination in pension plans: Author’s reply’, The Journal of Risk and Insurance 44(1): 145–149.
Martin, G. (1979) ‘Gender discrimination in pension plans revisited: The results of court ordered implementation’, The Journal of Risk and Insurance 46(4): 727–732.
Meyer-Kahlen, W. (1988) Bonus-/Malus-System, in D. Farny, E. Helten, P. Koch and R. Schmidt (eds) Handwörterbuch der Versicherung HdV, Karlsruhe: Verlag Versicherungswirtschaft, pp. 91–97.
Myers, R. (1977) ‘Gender discrimination in pension plans: Further comment’, The Journal of Risk and Insurance 44 (1): 144–145.
Nova Scotia Insurance Review Board (2004) A Study Into the Use of Gender as a Rating Factor in Automobile Insurance in Nov a Scotia, Province of Nova Scotia.
Owiwo (2011) Der Einfluss der Europäischen Union auf die Finanzierung der Gesundheitsversorgung in den Mitgliedstaaten, Technical Report November, Otto-Wolff-Institut fürWirtschaftsordnung (owiwo), Köln.
Oxera (2011) The Impact of a Ban on the Use of Gender in Insurance, Oxford: Oxera Consulting.
Pärli, K. (2011) Verbot geschlechtsspezifischer Prämien bei Versicherungsverträgen: Urteil des Europäischen Gerichtshofes vom 1. März 2011, Rs C-236/09(Vorabentscheidungsverfahren), HAVE/REAS, 2:153–159.
Pinsent Masons LLP (2011) Gender Discrimination and Insurance, from http://www.out-law.com /page-9368.
Rees, R. and Wambach, A. (2008) ‘The microeconomics of insurance’, Microeconomics of Insurance, Foundations and Trends in Microeconomics 4(1–2): 1–163.
Riedel, O. (2006) ‘Unisex tariffs in health insurance’, The Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance—Issues and Practice 31(2): 233–244.
Rothschild, M. and Stiglitz, J. (1976) ‘Equilibrium in competitive insurance markets: An essay on the economics of imperfect information’, The Quarterly Journal of Economics 90(4): 629–649.
Schiek, D. (2000) Differenzierte Gerechtigkeit: Diskriminierungsschutz und Vertragsrecht, Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft.
Schmidt, C. (1989) Die Frauenprämie in der privaten Krankenversicherung im Lichte des Gleichbehandlungs-grundsatzes, Ph.D. thesis, Saarbrücken.
Shavell, S. (1979) ‘On moral hazard and insurance’, The Quarterly Journal of Economics 93(4): 541–562.
Society of Actuaries in Ireland (2004) The Draft EU Directive on Equal Insurance Premiums for Men and Women, Society of Actuaries in Ireland, Dublin.
Thiery, Y. and Van Schoubroeck, C. (2006) ‘Fairness and equality in insurance classification’, The Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance—Issues and Practice 31(2): 190–211.
Thomas, R.G. (2007) ‘Some novel perspectives on risk classification’, The Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance—Issues and Practice 32(1): 105–132.
Tobler, C. (2005) Indirect Discrimination: A Case Study Into the Development of the Legal Concept of Indirect Discrimination Under EC Law, Antwerpen: Intersentia.
U.S. Supreme Court (1978) City of Los Angeles Department of Water and Power v. Manhart, 435 U.S. 702.
U.S. Supreme Court (1983) Arizona Governing Committee for Tax Deferred Annuity and Deferred Compensation Plans et al. v. Norris, 46 3 U.S. 1073.
Wallace, F.K. (1984) ‘Unisex automobile rating: The Michigan experience’, Journal of Insurance Regulation 3(2): 127–139.
Wang, S.S. (2000) ‘A class of distortion operations for pricing financial and insurance risks’, The Journal of Risk and Insurance 67(1): 15–36.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Copyright information
© 2016 The International Association for the Study of Insurance Economics
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Schmeiser, H., Störmer, T., Wagner, J. (2016). Unisex Insurance Pricing: Consumers’ Perception and Market Implications. In: Courbage, C. (eds) The Geneva Papers. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-57479-4_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-57479-4_5
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-349-57556-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-137-57479-4
eBook Packages: HistoryHistory (R0)