Abstract
As previously indicated, recent years have seen a great increase in the importance of internal wars or—viewed from a different angle—low-intensity conflicts, some of which have had interstate dimensions. As pointed out in a recent article by Steven David, internal wars have made up over 80 percent of the wars and casualties since the end of World War II, and that preponderance has become even more marked since the end of the Cold War (between 1989 and 1996 only five of ninety-six armed conflicts were between states, in 1993 and 1994 there were no interstate conflicts, and in 1995 there was just the brief border skirmish between Ecuador and Peru).1 As David further states, “those interested in contemporary warfare are left little choice but to focus on internal war.”2
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Notes
Steven R. David, “Internal War: Causes and Cures,” World Politics, vol. 49 (July 1997), pp. 552–576.
A representative publication is J. David Singer and Melvin Small, Resort to Arms: International and Civil Wars, 1816–1980, 2d ed. (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1982).
Discussed in S. David, “Internal War,” pp. 562–567, based on a review of Michael E. Brown, “The Causes and Regional Dimensions of Internal Conflict,” in Brown, ed., The International Dimension of Internal Conflict (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996), chapter 17, pp. 571–601.
Chaim Kaufmann, “Possible and Impossible Solutions to Ethnic Civil Wars,” International Security, vol. 20, no. 4 (spring 1996), pp. 136–175.
Lt. Col. George Stetser, “Concepts of Guerilla Warfare and Insurgent War,” in Military Strategy: Theory and Application, a reference text (Carlisle, PA: U.S. Army War College, 1983), p. 13–1.
Generally, regarding guerilla, revolutionary, and insurgency warfare (however defined and mutually distinguished), see Frank Kitson, Low Intensity Operations: Subversion, Insurgency, Peacekeeping (Hamden, CT:Archon Books, 1974);
Nathan C. Leites. Rebellion and Authority: An Analytical Essary on Insurgent Conflicts (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corp., 1970);
and Andrew Mackey, Insurgency (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1970).
Lt. Col. George R. Stetser, “Concepts,” chapter 13. See also Gerard Chaliand, ed., Guerilla Strategies: An Historical Anthology from the Long March to Afghanistan (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1982).
Jean Gottmann, “Bugeaud, Gallieni, Lyautey:The Development of French Colonial Warfare,” in Edward M. Earle, ed., Makers of Modern Strategy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1948), pp. 206–238.
Ibid., p. 13–10. See also George K. Tanham, Communist Revolutionary Warfare from the Vietminh to the Vietcong (New York: Praeger, 1967).
The basics of the Reagan Doctrine are discussed in Mark P. Lagon, The Reagan Doctrine: Sources of American Conduct in the Cold War’s Last Chapter (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994);
Fareed Zakaria, “The Reagan Doctrine of Containment,” Political Science Quarterly, vol. 105 (fall 1990), pp. 373–395;
Christopher DeMuth et al., The Reagan Doctrine and Beyond (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1987); Charles Krauthammer, “Morality and the Reagan Doctrine:The Rights and Wrongs of Guerilla Warfare,” New Republic, 8 September 1986, pp. 17–24 and “The Poverty of Realism,” 17 February 1986, pp. 14–22;
and Robert A. Johnson, Rollback Revisited: A Reagan Doctrine fror Insurgent Wars? (Washington, DC: Overseas Development Council, 1986).
See in particular, Douglas S. Blaufarb, The Counterinsurgency Era: U.S. Doctrine and Performance, 1950 to the Present (New York: Free Press, 1977);
D. Michael Shafer, Deadly Paradigms: The Failure of U.S. Counterinsurgency Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988);
Nathan Leites and Charles Wolf, Jr., Rebellion and Authority: An Analytic Essay on Insurgent Conflicts (Chicago: Markham, 1970);
John Maynard Dow, National Building in Southeast Asia, rev. ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Press, 1966);
Andrew Scott et al., Insurgency (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1970);
and Rod Paschall, LIC 2010 (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 1990).
Blaufarb, The Counterinsurgency Era, chapter 4. Generally, regarding counterinsurgency, see also John J. McCuen, The Art of Counter-Revolutionary War: The Strategy of Counter Insurgency (Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1966);
and Richard Shultz, ed., Guerilla Warfare and Counterinsurgency (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1989).
Charles Maechling, Jr., “Counterinsurgency: The First Ordeal By Fire,” in Michael T. Klare and Peter Kornbluh, eds., Low-Intensity Warfare (New York: Pantheon Books, 1988), p. 40.
Britain’s ultimately futile conduct of a string of colonial wars in the 1950s and 1960s is related in Gregory Blaxland, The Regiments Depart (London:William Klimber, 1971).
Victor T. LeVine, “Conceptualizing ‘Ethnicity’ and ‘Ethnic Conflict’: A Controversy Revisited,” Studies in Comparative International Development, vol. 32, no. 2 (summer 1997), pp. 45–75.
See also various contributions to Donald L. Horowitz, ed., Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985);
Ted Gurr and Barbara Harff, Ethnic Conflict in World Politics (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994);
Raymond C. Taras and Rajat Ganguly, Understanding Ethnic Conflict: The International Dimension (New York: Longman, 1998);
and David Corment and Patrick James, eds., Wars in the Midst of Peace: The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987).
Susan Jacoby, Wild Justice: The Evolution of Revenge (New York: Harper and Row, 1983);
Thomas Schiff, Bloody Revenge (Boulder, CO:Westview Press, 1994);
Donald Kagan, “Our Interests and Our Honor,” Commentary, vol. 103, no. 4 (April 1997), pp. 42–50;
and Jonathan Mercer, “Approaching Emotions in International Politics,” paper presented at meeting of International Studies Association, San Diego, April 1996. For a recent overall review of these issues, see Robert E. Harkavy, “Defeat, National Humiliation, and the Revenge Motif in International Politics,” International Politics, vol. 37, no. 3 (15 September 2000), pp. 345–68.
See, among others, Heinz Kohut, “Narcissism and Narcissistic Rage,” The Psychological Study of the Child, vol. 27 (1992), pp. 360–400;
and Sidney Levin, “The Psychoanalysis of Shame,” International Journal of Psychoanalysis vol. 52, no. 4 (1971), pp. 355–361.
This dilemma is analyzed in detail in William Bloom, Personal Identity, National Identity, and International Relations (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
See also S. E. Perry, “Notes on the Role of National: A Social-Psychological Concept for the Study of International Relations,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, vol. 1 (1957), pp. 346–363;
and Harold Lasswell, “The Climate of International Action,” in Herbert Kelman, ed., International Behavior (New York: Holt, Punehart, and Winston, 1965), pp. 344–346, under “Theory of a Collective Mood.”
Regarding the Arabs vis-à-vis Israel, see Harold W. Glidden, “The Arab World,” American Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 128, no. 8 (February 1992), pp. 98–100.
A good case study of the Cyprus situation by a psychiatrist is Vamik D. Volkan, Cyprus—War and Adaptation: A Psychoanalytical History of Two Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1979).
John W. Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986).
David Keen, The Economic Functions of Violence in Civil Wars (Oxford: International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS), 1998), Adelphi Paper no. 320. See in particular Keen’s excellent appendix (pp. 75–79) rendering basic information on all internal conflicts, 1994–1998. Most of the materials pertaining to the small wars in this section—Mozambique, Papua New Guinea, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Central African Republic—were obtained via telephone interviews with the relevant U.S. State Department desk officers in the summer of 1998.
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© 2001 Robert E. Harkavy and Stephanie G. Neuman
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Harkavy, R.E., Neuman, S.G. (2001). Strategies, Operations, Tactics in Low-Intensity Conflict. In: Warfare and the Third World. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-07926-8_5
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