Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Women of Color and HIV/AIDS Epidemiology, Clinical Aspects, and Management

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
HIV/AIDS in U.S. Communities of Color

  • 587 Accesses

Abstract

A growing number of women in the USA have been diagnosed with HIV/AIDS since the beginning of the epidemic. The proportion of new HIV/AIDS cases in women has increased from 8% of all cases in 1985 to 27% in 2005. 1 Women of color have borne the brunt of this shift in epidemiology. African Americans and Hispanic women account for more than 80% of new HIV/AIDS diagnoses in women.2 In 2005, the rate of AIDS diagnosis for black women (45.5/100,000) was 23 times higher than the rate for white women (2.0/100,000). The rate for Hispanic women (11.2/100,000) was more than five times higher than that for their white counterparts.1 A myriad of psychosocial, socioeconomic, and health system factors, including poverty, higher rates of other sexually transmitted diseases, drug and alcohol use, low perception of risk, sexual inequality, and lack of access to care and treatment have led to the disparate rise in HIV infection in women of color.3–5 For similar reasons, increasing numbers of HIV cases have also been noted in women worldwide. Globally, women represent more than one-half of all infections amongst adults and are the fastest growing population living with HIV.6

Much of the HIV/AIDS information that was published early in the epidemic was based on data collected from male-predominant cohorts.7,8 As the demographics of the epidemic changed, so did the need for research studies investigating the impact of HIV on women. In the early 1990s, research cohorts comprising women were formed.9, 10 Prospective studies from these longitudinal cohorts and independent research have contributed to an improved understanding of gender-based differences in HIV infection. We now have a better understanding of the environmental factors that impact disease progression in women, gender-specific side effects and toxicities caused by highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), and the gynecologic manifestations specific to HIV. Our knowledge of the unique impact that HIV has on women, particularly on women of color, must continue to evolve. As new therapeutics become available, gender differences in efficacy and pharmacokinetics must be determined. As HIV-infected women live longer, the effect of HIV on menopause and on the development of chronic diseases associated with age deserves further investigation. Clearly, many questions remain.

This chapter will serve as a reference tool to provide clinical guidance to providers caring for women living with HIV infection. Risk factors for acquiring HIV will be reviewed as will the natural history of HIV infection with and without treatment. Clinical management strategies will be discussed, and the unique aspects of caring for women living with HIV, including the management of women on HAART, will be outlined. The gynecologic manifestations of HIV will be reviewed. An overview of reproductive challenges that women living with HIV face and the management of HIV in pregnancy will be reviewed in detail in a separate chapter.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. 2005;17:1-54.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Racial/ethnic disparities in diagnoses of HIV/AIDS-33 states, 2001-2005. MMWR Weekly Report. 2007;56:189-193.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Adimora AA, Schoenbach VJ, Martinson FE, et-al. Social context of sexual relationships among rural African Americans. Sex Trans Dis. 2001;28:69–76.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Moreno CL, El-Bassel N, Morrill AC. Heterosexual women of color and HIV risk: sexual risk factors for HIV among Latina and African American women. Women Health. 2007;45:1–15.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Forna FM, Fitzpatrick L, Adimora AA. A case-control study of factors associated with HIV infection among black women. J Natl Med Assoc. 2006;98(11):1798–804.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. UNAIDS and World Health Organization. AIDS Epidemic Update. December 2007. Available at: http://data.unaids.org/pub/EPISlides/2007/2007_epiupdate_en.pdf. Accessed: January 15, 2008.

  7. Ginzburg HM, Fleming PL, Miller KD. Selected public health observations derived from Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. JAIDS. 1988;1:2–7.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Ledergerber B, von Overbeck J, Egger M. The Swiss HIV Cohort Study: rationale, organization and selected baseline characteristics. Soz Praentivmed.1994;39:387–94.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Barkan S, Melnick S, Preston-Martin S. The Women’s interagency HIV Study. Epidemiology. 1998;9:117–125.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Smith DK, Warren DL, Vlahov D. Design and baseline participant characteristics of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Epidemiology Research (HER) Study: a prospective cohort study of human immunodeficiency virus infection in US women. Am J Epidemiol. 1997;146:459–69.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Hader S, Smith DK, Moore JS, et al. HIV Infection in Women in the United States: status at the Millennium JAMA. 2001;9:1186-92.

    Google Scholar 

  12. European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV. Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples. BMJ. 1992;304:809–813.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Mastro TD, de Vincezzi I. Probabilities of sexual HIV transmission. AIDS. 1996;10(Suppl A):S75-82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Vittinghoff E, Douglas J, Judson F, et-al. Per-contact risk of human immunodeficiency virus transmission between male sexual partners. Am J Epidemiol. 1999;150:306–11.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Jaffe LR, Seehaus M, Wagner C, et-al. Anal intercourse and knowledge of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome among minority-group female adolescents. J Pediatr. 1988;112:1005-7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Houston AM, Fang J, Husman C, et-al. More than just vaginal intercourse: anal intercourse and condom use patterns in the context of “main” and “casual” sexual relationships among urban minority adolescent females. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 2007;20:299-304.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Lifson AR, O’Malley PM, Hessol NA, et-al. HIV seroconversion in two homosexual men after receptive oral intercourse with ejaculation: implications for counseling concerning safe sexual practices. Am J Public Health. 1990;80:1509-11.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Rothenberg RB, Scarlett M, del Rio C, et-al Oral Transmission of HIV. AIDS 1998;12:2095-2105.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Rich JD, Buck A, Tuomala RE, et-al. Transmission of human immunodeficiency virus infection presumed to have occurred via female homosexual contact. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17:1003-5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Kwakwa HA, Ghobrial MW. Female-to-female transmission of human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36(3):e401. Epub 2003 Jan 10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Sarkar K, Bai B, Mukherjee R, et-al. Young age is a risk factor for HIV among female sex workers-An experience from India. J Infect. 2006;53:4;255-259.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Bulterys M, Chao A, Habimana P, et-al. Incident HIV-1 infection in a cohort of young women in Butare, Rwanda AIDS 1994;8:1585-1591.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Moscicki AB, Ma Y, Holland C, et-al. Cervical ectopy in adolescent girls with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis. 2001;183:865-70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Moss GB, Clemetson D, D’Costa L, et-al. Association of cervical ectopy with heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus: results of a study of couples in Nairobi, Kenya. J Infect Dis. 1991;164:588-91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Heffernan R, Chiasson MA, Sackoff JE. HIV risk behaviors among adolescents at a sexually transmitted disease clinic in New York City. J Adolesc Health. 1996;18:429-34.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Clark RA, Kissinger P, Bedimo AL, et-al. Determination of factors associated with condom use among women infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Int J STD AIDS. 1997;8:229-33.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Fleming DT, Wasserheit JN. From epidemiological synergy to public health policy and practice: the contribution of other sexually transmitted diseases to sexual transmission of HIV infection. Sex Transm Infect. 1999;75:3-17.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Hanson J, Posner S, Hassig S, et-al. Assessment of sexually transmitted diseases as risk factors for HIV seroconversion in a New Orleans sexually transmitted disease clinic, 1990–1998. Ann Epidemiol. 2005;15:13-20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Xu F, Sternberg MR, Kottri BJ, et-al. Trends in Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 and Type 2 Seroprevalence in the United States. JAMA. 2006;296:964-973.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Gupta R, Warren T, Wald A. Genital herpes. Lancet. 2007;370:2127-37.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Health Disparities in HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, Sexually Transmitted Disease and Tuberculosis in the United States. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/NCHHSTP/healthdisparities/docs/NCHHSTPHealthDisparitiesReport1107.pdf. Accessed: February 3, 2008.

  32. Ragni MV, Faruki H, Kingsley LA. Heterosexual HIV-1 transmission and viral load in hemophilic patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1998;17:42-5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Pedraza MA, Del Romero J, Roldan F, et-al. Heterosexual transmission of HIV-1 is associated with high plasma viral load levels and a positive viral isolation in the infected partner. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1999;2:120-5.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Tanfer K, Aral SO. Sexual intercourse during menstruation and self-reported sexually transmitted disease history among women. Sex Transm Dis. 1996;23:395-40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Guimaraes MD, Vlahov D, Castilho EA. Postcoital vaginal bleeding as a risk factor for transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus in a heterosexual partner study in Brazil. Rio de Janeiro Heterosexual Study Group. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:1362-8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Baeten JM, Nyange PM, Richardson BA, et-al. Hormonal contraception and risk of sexually transmitted disease acquisition: results from a prospective study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001;185:380-5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Moss GB, Clemetson D, D’Costa L, et-al. Association of cervical ectopy with heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus: results of a study of couples in Nairobi, Kenya. J Infect Dis. 1991;164:588-91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Ghanem KG, Shah N, Klein RS, et-al. Influence of sex hormones, HIV status, and concomitant sexually transmitted infection on cervicovaginal inflammation. J Infect Dis. 2005;191:358-66.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Prakash M, Kapembwa MS, Gotch F, et-al. Oral contraceptive use induces upregulation of the CCR5 chemokine receptor on CD4(+) T cells in the cervical epithelium of healthy women. J Reprod Immunol. 2002;54:117-31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Kapiga SH, Lyamuya EF, Lwihula GK. The incidence of HIV infection among women using family planning methods in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. AIDS. 1998;12:75-84.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Daly CC, Helling-Giese GE, Mati JK. Contraceptive methods and the transmission of HIV: implications for family planning. Genitourin Med. 1994;70:110-7.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Meirik O. Intrauterine devices - upper and lower genital tract infections. Contraception. 2007;75(Suppl 6):S41-7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Stringer EM, Kaseba C, Levy J, et-al. A randomized trial of the intrauterine contraceptive device vs hormonal contraception in women who are infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;197:144.e1-8.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Chaisson RE, Keruly JC, Moore RD. Race, sex, drug use and progression of human immunodeficiency disease. N Eng J Med. 1995;331:751-6.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Melnick SL, Sherer R, Louis TA, et-al. Survival and disease progression according to gender of patients with HIV infection. The Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. JAMA. 1994;2727:1915-21.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Squires K. Gender difference in the diagnosis and treatment of HIV. Gend Med. 2007;4:294-307.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Levine RS, Briggs NC, Kilbourn BS. Black-white mortality from HIV in the United States before and after introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy in 1996. Am J Pub Health. 2007;97:1884-92.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Gebo KA, Fleishan JA, Conviser R, et-al. Racial and gender disparities in receipt of highly active antiretroviral therapy persist in a multistate sample of HIV patients in 2001. J Acquire Immune Defic Syndr. 2005;38:96-103.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Sterling TR, Vlahov D, Astemborski J, et-al. Initial plasma HIV-1 RNA levels and progression to AIDS in women and men. N Engl J Med 2001;344:720-5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1 infected adults and adolescent. Department of Health and Human Services. January 29, 2008;1-128. Available: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf. Accessed on July 12, 2008.

  51. Cooley TP, Hirschhorn LR, O’Keane JC. Kaposi’s sarcoma in women with AIDS. AIDS. 1996;10:1221-5

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Eltom MA, Jemal A, Mbulaiteye SM, et-al. Trends in Kaposi’s sarcoma and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma incidence in the United States From 1973 through 1998. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002;94:1204-1210.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Nasti G, Serraino D, Ridolfo, A, et-al AIDS-Associated Kaposi’s Sarcoma Is More Aggressive in Women: A Study of 54 Patients. AIDS. 1999;20:337-341

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Meditz AL; Borok M; MaWhinney S, et-al. Gender differences in AIDS-associated Kaposi sarcoma in Harare, Zimbabwe. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr.2007; 44:306-308.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Engels E; Pfeiffer RM; Goedert JJ, et-al. Trends in cancer risk among people with AIDS in the United States 1980-2002. AIDS. 2006;20:1645-1654.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Frisch M, Biggar RJ, Engels E, et al. Association of cancer with AIDS-related immunosuppression in adults.JAMA. 2001;285:1736-1745.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Kirk GD, Merlo C, Driscoll P, et-al. HIV infection is associated with an increased risk for lung cancer, independent of smoking. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:103-10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Goedert JJ, Schainer C, McNeel TS, et-al. Risk of breast, ovary, and uterine corpus cancers among 85 268 women with AIDS. Br J Cancer. 2006;95:642-648.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Frisch M, Biggar RJ, and Engels EA, et-al. Association of cancer with AIDS-related immunosuppression in adults. JAMA. 2001;4;285:1736-45.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Herida M, Mary Krause M, Kaphan R, et-al. Incidence of non-AIDS-defining cancers before and during the highly active antiretroviral therapy era in a cohort of human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. J Clin Oncol. 2003;15;21:3447-53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Morris A, Lundgren JD, Masur H, et-al. Current epidemiology of pneumocystis pneumonia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10:1713-1720.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Kaplan JE, Hanson DL, Navin TR, et-al. Risk factors for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus infected adolescents and adults in the United States: reassessment of indications for chemoprophylaxis. J Infect Dis. 1998;178:1126-32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Stansell JD, Osmond DH, Charlebois E, et-al. Predictors of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV-infected persons. Pulmonary Complications of HIV Study Group. AM J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;155:60-6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Chan IS, Neaton JD, Saravolatz LD, et-al. Frequencies of opportunistic diseases prior to death among HIV-infected persons. Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. AIDS. 1995;9:1145-51.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Jones JL, Hanson DL, Dworkin MS, et-al. Surveillance for AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses, 1992-1997. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 1999;48:1-22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Wills TS, Nadler JP, Somboonwit C, et-al. Anemia prevalence and associated risk factors in a single-center ambulatory HIV clinical cohort. AIDS Read. 2004;14:305-10, 313-5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Semba RD. Iron-deficiency anemia and the cycle of poverty among human immunodeficiency virus-infected women in the inner city. Source: Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37(Suppl 1) 2-11.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Sullivan PS, Hanson DL, Chu SY, et-al. Epidemiology of anemia in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected persons: results from the multistate adult and adolescent spectrum of HIV disease surveillance project. Blood. 1998;91:301-8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Sullivan PS, Hanson DL, Chu SY, et-al. Surveillance for thrombocytopenia in persons infected with HIV: results from the multistate adult and adolescent spectrum of disease project. JAIDS. 1997;14:374-9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Cu-Uvin, S Hogan JW, Warren Det-al, Prevalence of lower genital tract infection among HIV-seropositive and high risk seronegative women. HIV Epidemiology Research Study (HERS) Group. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;29:1145-1150.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Minkoff HL, Eisenberger-Matityahu D, Fedman J, et-al. Prevalence and incidence of gynecologic disorders among women infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999;180:824-836.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Frankel RE, Selwyn PA, Mexger J, Andrews S. High prevalence of gynecologic disease among hospitalized women with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin Infect Dis.. 1997;25:706-712.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Duerr A, Heilig CM, Meikle SF, et-al. Incident and persisistent vulvovaginal candidiasis among human immunodeficiency virus infected women: risk factors and severity. Obstet Gynecol. 2003;101:548-556.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Irwin KL, Moorman AC, O’Sullivan MJ, et-al. Influence of Human Immunodeficiency virus infection on pelvic inflammatory disease. Obstet Gynecol. 2000;95:525-34.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Harlow SD, Cohen M, Ohmit SE, Schuman P, Cu-Uvin S, Lin X, et-al. Substance abuse and psychotherapeutic medications: a likely contributor to menstrual disorders in women who are seropositive for human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;188:991-996.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Cu-Uvin S, Hogan JW, Caliendo AM, et-al. HIV Epidemiology Research Study (HERS) Group. Association between bacterial vaginosis and expression of Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA in the female genital tract. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;29:1145-1150.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Greenblatt RM, Bacchetti P, Barkan S, et al Lower genital tract infections among HIV-infected and high risk uninfected women: findings of the Womens’ Interagency HIV Study (WIHS). Sex Transm Dis. 1999;26:143-151.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Sutton M, Sternberg M, Koumans EH. The prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among reproductive-age women in the United States, 2001-2004. CID. 2007;45:1319-26.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Van Der Pol B, Kwolk C, Pierre-Louis B, et-al. Trichomonas vaginalis infection and human immunodeficiency virus acquisition in African women. JID. 2008;197:548-54.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Miller M, Liao Y, Gomez AM, et-al. Factors associated with the prevalence and incidence of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among African-American women in New York city who used drugs. JID. 2008;197:503-9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Cu-Uvin S, Ko II, Jamieson DJ, et-al. Prevalence, incidence and persistence or recurrence of trichomonasis among HIV-positive women and among HIV negative women at high risk for HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34:406-11.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Aberg JA, Gallant JE, Anderson J, Oleske JM, Libman H, Currier JS, Stone VE, Kaplan JE. Primary care guidelines for the management of persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus: Recommendations of the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Disease Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2008; in press.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Xu F, Schillinger JA, Sternberg MR, et-al. Seroprevalence and co-infection with Herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 in the U.S., 1988-1994. J Infect Dis. 2002;185:1019-1024.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Heng M, Heng S, Allen S. Coinfection and synergy of HIV-1 and HSV. Lancet. 1994; 343:255-258.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Little SE, Caughey AB. Acyclovir prophylaxis for pregnant women with a known history of herpes simplex virus: A cost-effectiveness analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;193:1274-9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Brown ZA, Gardlla C, Wald A, et-al. Genital Herpes Complicating Pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;106(4):845-56.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Sheffield JS, Hill JB, Hollier LM, et-al. Valacyclovir prophylaxis to prevent recurrent herpes at delivery. A randomized clinical trial. Obstet Gynecol. 2006;108:141-7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Chen KT, Segu M, Lumey LH, et-al. Genital herpes virus infection and perinatal transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;106:1341-8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Herad I, Tassie J, Schmitz V, Mandelbrot L, Kazatchkine MD, Orth G. Increased Risk of Cervical Disease Among Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Women with severe Immunosuppression and High Human Papillomavirus Load. Obstet Gynecol. 2000;96:403-9.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Stratton P, Gupta P, Riester K. Cervical dysplasia on cerivcovaginal papanicolaou smear among HIV-1-infected pregnant and non-pregnant women. JAIDS. 1999;20(3):300-307.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Klein RS, Ho GYF, Vermund SH, Fleming I, Burk RD. Risk factors for squamous intraepithelial lesions on pap smear in women at risk for human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infec Dis. 1994;170:1404-9.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Stanberry LR, Rosenthal SL, Mills L, et-al. Longitudinal risk of herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1, HSV type 2, and cytomegalovirus infections among young adolescent girls. CID. 2004;39:1433-8.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Massad LS, Riester KA, Anatos KM. Prevalence and predictors of squamous cell Abnormalities in Papanicolaou Smears from Women Infected with HIV-1. JAIDS. 1999;21(1):33-41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Delmas M, Larsen C, van Benthem B, et-al. Cervical squamous intraepithelial lesions in HIV-infected women: prevalence, incidence and regression. AIDS. 2000;14:1775-1784.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Wright TC, Massad LS, Dunton C, et-al. for the 2006 American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical pathology (ASCCP) Sponsored Consensus Conference. 2006 Consensus Guidelines for the Management of Women with abnormal cervical cancer screening tests. Am L Obstet Gynecol. 2007;197:340-355.

    Google Scholar 

  96. Saraiya M, Ahmed F, Krishnan S, et-al. Cervical cancer Incidence in a Prevaccine era in the United States, 1998-2002. Obstet Gynecol. 2007;109:360-70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Wallin K, Wiklund F, Angstrom T, et-al. Type-specific persistence of human papillomavirus DNA before the development of invasive cervical cancer. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:1633-8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Human Papillomavirus Vaccination. ACOG Committee Opinion Number 344, September 2006. Obstet Gynecol. 2006;108:699-705.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Benard VB, Coughlin SS, Thompson T, et-al. Cervical cancer incidence in the United States by area of residence, 1998-2001. Obstet Gynecol. 2007;110:681-6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Jones RW, Rowan DM, Stewart AW. Vulvar Epithelial Neoplasia. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;106:1319-26.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Conley LJ, Ellerbrock TV, Bush TJ. HIV infection and risk of Vulvovaginal and Perianal Condylomata Accuminata and Intraepithelial Neoplasia: A prospective cohort study. Lancet 2002;359:108-13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Taube JM, Nichols AD, Bornman DM, et-al. Langerhans cell density and high grade vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia in women with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Cutan Pathol. 2007;34:565-70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Elit L, Voruganti S, Simunovic M. Invasive vulvar cancer in a women with human immunodeficiency virus: Case report and review of the literature. Gynecol Oncol. 2005;98:151-4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Jamieson D, Paramsothy P, Cu-Uvin S, et-al. for the HIV Epidemiology Research Study Group. Vulvar, vaginal, and Perineal Intraepithelial Neoplasia in women with or at risk for Human immunodeficiency Virus. Obstet Gynecol. 2006;107:1023-8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Cohn SE, Park J-G, Watts DH, et-al. Depo-medroxyprogesterone in women on antiretroviral therapy:Effective contraception and lack of clinically significant interactions. Nature.com. 2007;81(2):222-2227.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Steiner MJ, Kwok C, dominik R, et-al. Pregnancy risk among oral contraceptive pill, injectable contraceptive, and condom users in Uganda, Zimbabwe, and Thailand. Obstet Gynecol. 2007;110:1003-9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Stinger EM, Kaseba C, Levy J, et-al. A randomized trial of the intrauterine contraceptive devise versus hormonal contraception in women who are infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;197:144.e1-144.e8.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Baeten JM, Lavreys L, Overbaugh J. The influence of hormonal contraceptive use on HIV-1 transmission and Disease progression. CID. 2007;45:360-9.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Peterson HB Sterilization Obstet Gynecol. 2008;111(1):189-202.

    Google Scholar 

  110. El-Sadr W, Gelttler J Arch Intern Med. 1995;155:184-86.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. 2006;18:1-56.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Cejtin HE. Gynecologic issues in the HIV-infected woman. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 2003;30(4):711-29.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Santoro N, Arsten JH, Buono D, et-al. Impact of street drug use, HIV infection, and highly active antiretroviral therapy on reproductive hormones in middle-aged women. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2005;14:898-905.

    Google Scholar 

  114. Fantry LE, Zhan M, Taylor GH, et-al. Age of menopause and menopausal symptoms in HIV-infected women. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2005;19:703-711.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Yin M, Dobkin J, Brudney K, et al. Bone mass and mineral metabolism in HIV+ postmenopausal women. 2005;16:1345-52. Epub 2005 March 8.

    Google Scholar 

  116. Washington DL, Bowles J, Saha S, et-al. Transforming clinical practice to eliminate racial-ethnic disparities in healthcare. J Gen Intern Med. 2008;23(5):685-91.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Angelino A, Willard S. The need for sociocultural awaremness to maximize treatment acceptance and adherence in individuals initiating HIV therapy. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care. 2008;7(Suppl 1):S17-S21.

    Google Scholar 

  118. Shapiro MF, Morton SC, McCaffrey DF, et-al. Variations in the care of HIV-infected adults in the United States. JAMA. 1999;281:2305-2315.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Gebo KA, Fleishman JA, Conviser R, et-al. Racial and gender disparities in receipt of highly active antiretroviral therapy persist in a multistate sample of HIV patients in 2001. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005;38(1):96-103.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Cohen MH, Cook JA, Grey D, et-al. Medically eligible women who do not use HAART: The importance of abuse, drug use, and race. AM J Pub Health. 2004;94(7):1147-1151.

    Google Scholar 

  121. Hirschhorn LR, Boswell SL, Stone VE. Discontinuation (D/C) of Protease Inhibitor (PI) Therapy: Reasons and Risk Factors. Presented at the 12th World AIDS Conference, Geneva Switzerland, June 28-July 3, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  122. Losina E, Schackman B, Sadownik S, et al. Disparities in survival attributable to suboptimal HIV care in the U.S.: influence of gender and race/ethnicity [Abstract #142]. Paper Presented at the 14th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Los Angeles, CA: February 25-28, 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  123. Malcolm SE, Ng JJ, Rosen RK, Stone VE. An examination of HIV/AIDS patients who have excellent adherence to HAART. AIDS Care. 2003;15:251-61.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Stone VE, Clarke J, Lovell J, et-al. HIV/AIDS patients’ perspectives on adhering to regimens containing protease inhibitors. J Gen Intern Med. 1998;13(9):586-593.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Stone VE, Weissman JS, Cleary P. Satisfaction with ambulatory care of persons with AIDS: Predictors of patient ratings of quality. J Gen Intern Med. 1995;10:239-245.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Stein MD, Fleishman J, Mor V, Dresser M. Factors associated with patient satisfaction among symptomatic HIV-infected persons. Med Care. 1993;31:182-88.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Massachusetts General Hospital, Office of International Programs, Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

    Bisola O. Ojikutu

Authors
  1. Bisola O. Ojikutu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Valerie E. Stone
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Arlene Bardeguez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bisola O. Ojikutu .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. General Internal Medicine Unit, Harvard Medical School Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

    Valerie Stone

  2. Div. AIDS, Harvard Medical School Div. AIDS, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

    Bisola Ojikutu

  3. Peabody Health Center, AIDS Arms Inc., Peabody Health Center, Dallas, Texas, USA

    M. Keith Rawlings

  4. Section of Infectious Diseases, Rush-Presbyterian-St. Luke's Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA

    Kimberly Y. Smith

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Ojikutu, B.O., Stone, V.E., Bardeguez, A. (2009). Women of Color and HIV/AIDS Epidemiology, Clinical Aspects, and Management. In: Stone, V., Ojikutu, B., Rawlings, M., Smith, K. (eds) HIV/AIDS in U.S. Communities of Color. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-98152-9_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-98152-9_6

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-387-98151-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-0-387-98152-9

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation