Skip to main content

Cardiovascular Effects of Anesthetics, Sedatives, Postoperative Analgesic Agents, and Other Pharmaceuticals

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Animal Models in Cardiovascular Research

Abstract

Researchers using animal models must be aware that many of the drugs necessary to provide humane use and care have adverse affects on the cardiovascular system. The use of these agents is absolutely necessary and unavoidable but informed choices can be made to minimize these affects.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Gross DR. Animal Models in Cardiovascular Research, 2nd Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic; 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Weber M, Motin L, Gaul S, Beker F, Fink RH, Adams DJ. Intravenous anaesthetics inhibit nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-mediated currents and Ca2+ transients in rat intracardiac ganglion neurons. Br J Pharmacol. 2005;144:98–107.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Rottman JN, Ni G, Khoo M, et al. Temporal changes in ventricular function assessed echocardiographically in conscious and anesthetized mice. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2003;16:1150–1157.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Schwenke DO, Cragg PA. Comparison of the depressive effects of four anesthetic regimens on ventilatory and cardiovascular variables in the guinea pig. Comp Med. 2004;54:77–85.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Blake DW, Korner PI. Role of baroreceptor reflexes in the hemodynamic and heart rate responses to althesin, ketamine and thiopentone anesthesia. J Auton Nerv Syst. 1981;3:55–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Thomson IA, Fitch W, Hughes RL, Campbell D, Watson R. Effects of certain i.v. anaesthetics on liver blood flow and hepatic oxygen consumption in the greyhound. Br J Anaesth. 1986;58:69–80.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Mather LE, Ladd LA, Copeland SE, Chang DH. Effects of imposed acid-base derangement on the cardiovascular effects and pharmacokinetics of bupivacaine and thiopental. Anesthesiology. 2004;100:1457–1468.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Roth DM, Swaney JS, Dalton ND, Gilpin EA, Ross J, Jr. Impact of anesthesia on cardiac function during echocardiography in mice. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2002;282:H2134–H2140.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Philp KL, Hussain M, Byrne NF, Diver MJ, Hart G, Coker SJ. Greater antiarrhythmic activity of acute 17beta-estradiol in female than male anaesthetized rats: Correlation with Ca2+ channel blockade. Br J Pharmacol. 2006;149:233–242.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Stekiel TA, Contney SJ, Bosnjak ZJ, Kampine JP, Roman RJ, Stekiel WJ. Chromosomal substitution-dependent differences in cardiovascular responses to sodium pentobarbital. Anesth Analg. 2006;102:799–805.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Mustola ST, Baer GA, Toivonen JK, et al Electroencephalographic burst suppression versus loss of reflexes anesthesia with propofol or thiopental: Differences of variance in the catecholamine and cardiovascular response to tracheal intubation. Anesth Analg. 2003;97:1040–1045, table of contents.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Misiolek H, Wojcieszek E, Dyaczynska-Herman A. Comparison of influence of thiopentone, propofol and midazolam on blood serum concentration of noradrenaline and cortisol in patients undergoing non-toxic struma operation. Med Sci Monit. 2000;6:319–324.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Roh WS, Ding X, Murray PA. Propofol and thiopental attenuate adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channel relaxation in pulmonary veins. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2006;291:L636–L643.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Brookes ZL, Reilly CS, Brown NJ. Differential effects of propofol, ketamine, and thiopental anaesthesia on the skeletal muscle microcirculation of normotensive and hypertensive rats in vivo. Br J Anaesth. 2004;93:249–256.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Brookes ZL, Brown NJ, Reilly CS. Response of the rat cremaster microcirculation to hemorrhage in vivo: Differential effects of intravenous anesthetic agents. Shock. 2002;18:542–548.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Stein AB, Tiwari S, Thomas P, et al. Effects of anesthesia on echocardiographic assessment of left ventricular structure and function in rats. Basic Res Cardiol. 2007;102:28–41.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Fanton JW, Zarr SR, Ewert DL, Woods RW, Koenig SC. Cardiovascular responses to propofol and etomidate in long-term instrumented rhesus monkeys (macaca mulatta). Comp Med. 2000;50:303–308.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Chen WH, Lee CY, Hung KC, Yeh FC, Tseng CC, Shiau JM. The direct cardiac effect of propofol on intact isolated rabbit heart. Acta Anaesthesiol Taiwan. 2006;44:19–23.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Akine A, Suzuka H, Hayashida Y, Kato Y. Effects of ketamine and propofol on autonomic cardiovascular function in chronically instrumented rats. Auton Neurosci. 2001;87:201–208.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Oku K, Ohta M, Katoh T, Moriyama H, Kusano K, Fujinaga T. Cardiovascular effects of continuous propofol infusion in horses. J Vet Med Sci. 2006;68:773–778.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Umar MA, Yamashita K, Kushiro T, Muir WW. Evaluation of cardiovascular effects of total intravenous anesthesia with propofol or a combination of ketamine-medetomidine-propofol in horses. Am J Vet Res. 2007;68:121–127.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Cromheecke S, Pepermans V, Hendrickx E, et al Cardioprotective properties of sevoflurane in patients undergoing aortic valve replacement with cardiopulmonary bypass. Anesth Analg. 2006;103:289–296, table of contents.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Wickley PJ, Ding X, Murray PA, Damron DS. Propofol-induced activation of protein kinase C isoforms in adult rat ventricular myocytes. Anesthesiology. 2006;104:970–977.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Roy N, Friehs I, Cowan DB, Zurakowski D, McGowan FX, del Nido PJ. Dopamine induces postischemic cardiomyocyte apoptosis in vivo: An effect ameliorated by propofol. Ann Thorac Surg. 2006;82:2192–2199.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Saint DA. The effects of propofol on macroscopic and single channel sodium currents in rat ventricular myocytes. Br J Pharmacol. 1998;124:655–662.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Nagakawa T, Yamazaki M, Hatakeyama N, Stekiel TA. The mechanisms of propofol-mediated hyperpolarization of in situ rat mesenteric vascular smooth muscle. Anesth Analg. 2003;97:1639–1645.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Rubal BJ, Buchanan C. Supplemental chloralose anesthesia in morphine premedicated dogs. Lab Anim Sci. 1986;36:59–64.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Faber JE. Effects of althesin and urethane-chloralose on neurohumoral cardiovascular regulation. Am J Physiol. 1989;256:R757–R765.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Dyson DH, Allen DG, Ingwersen W, Pascoe PJ, O’Grady M. Effects of saffan on cardiopulmonary function in healthy cats. Can J Vet Res. 1987;51:236–239.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Al-Khawashki MI, Ghaleb HA, El-Gawhary N, Madkour MK, Radwan AM, El-Sherbiny AM. Pharmacological effects of althesin and its steroidal components on the cardiovascular system. Middle East J Anaesthesiol. 1980;5:457–469.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Foster A, Zeller W, Pfannkuche HJ. Effect of thiopental, saffan, and propofol anesthesia on cardiovascular parameters and bronchial smooth muscle in the rhesus monkey. Lab Anim Sci. 1996;46:327–334.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. De Hert SG. Volatile anesthetics and cardiac function. Semin Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2006;10:33–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Guarracino F, Landoni G, Tritapepe L, et al. Myocardial damage prevented by volatile anesthetics: A multicenter randomized controlled study. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2006;20:477–483.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Neuhauser C, Muller M, Welters I, Scholz S, Kwapisz MM. Effect of isoflurane on echocardiographic left-ventricular relaxation indices in patients with diastolic dysfunction due to concentric hypertrophy and ischemic heart disease. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2006;20:509–514.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Kadoi Y, Takahashi K, Saito S, Goto F. The comparative effects of sevoflurane versus isoflurane on cerebrovascular carbon dioxide reactivity in patients with diabetes mellitus. Anesth Analg. 2006;103:168–172, table of contents.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Preckel B, Obal D, Mullenheim J, et al. Effects of halothane, sevoflurane and desflurane on the force-frequency relation in the dog heart in vivo. Can J Anaesth. 2006;53:1118–1125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Graham MD, Hopkins PM, Harrison SM. Antagonistic actions of halothane and sevoflurane on spontaneous Ca2+ release in rat ventricular myocytes. Anesthesiology. 2006;105:58–64.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Wang Q, Brunner HR, Burnier M. Determination of cardiac contractility in awake unsedated mice with a fluid-filled catheter. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2004;286:H806–H814.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Sigg DC, Iaizzo PA. In vivo versus in vitro comparison of swine cardiac performance: Induction of cardiodepression with halothane. Eur J Pharmacol. 2006;543:97–107.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Pascoe PJ, Ilkiw JE, Fisher LD. Cardiovascular effects of equipotent isoflurane and alfentanil/isoflurane minimum alveolar concentration multiple in cats. Am J Vet Res. 1997;58:1267–1273.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Marinovic J, Bosnjak ZJ, Stadnicka A. Distinct roles for sarcolemmal and mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channels in isoflurane-induced protection against oxidative stress. Anesthesiology. 2006;105:98–104.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Feng J, Fischer G, Lucchinetti E, et al. Infarct-remodeled myocardium is receptive to protection by isoflurane postconditioning: Role of protein kinase B/Akt signaling. Anesthesiology. 2006;104:1004–1014.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Iltis I, Kober F, Dalmasso C, Lan C, Cozzone PJ, Bernard M. In vivo assessment of myocardial blood flow in rat heart using magnetic resonance imaging: Effect of anesthesia. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2005;22:242–247.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Ishizaka S, Sievers RE, Zhu BQ, et al. New technique for measurement of left ventricular pressure in conscious mice. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2004;286:H1208–H1215.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Tsutsumi YM, Patel HH, Huang D, Roth DM. Role of 12-lipoxygenase in volatile anesthetic-induced delayed preconditioning in mice. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2006;291:H979–H983.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Fujita H, Ogura T, Tamagawa M, et al. A key role for the subunit SUR2B in the preferential activation of vascular KATP channels by isoflurane. Br J Pharmacol. 2006;149:573–580.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Galagudza M, Vaage J, Valen G. Isoflurane and other commonly used anaesthetics do not protect the isolated buffer perfused mouse heart from ischemia-reperfusion injury. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2006;33:315–319.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Souza AP, Guerrero PN, Nishimori CT, et al. Cardiopulmonary and acid-base effects of desflurane and sevoflurane in spontaneously breathing cats. J Feline Med Surg. 2005;7:95–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Rozenberg S, Besse S, Amour J, Vivien B, Tavernier B, Riou B. Effects of desflurane in senescent rat myocardium. Anesthesiology. 2006;105:961–967.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Yerer MB, Aydogan S, Comu FM, et al. The red blood cell deformability alterations under desflurane anesthesia in rats. Clin Hemorheol Microcirc. 2006;35:213–216.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Smul TM, Lange M, Redel A, Burkhard N, Roewer N, Kehl F. Desflurane-induced preconditioning against myocardial infarction is mediated by nitric oxide. Anesthesiology. 2006;105:719–725.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Ogawa Y, Iwasaki K, Shibata S, Kato J, Ogawa S, Oi Y. Different effects on circulatory control during volatile induction and maintenance of anesthesia and total intravenous anesthesia: Autonomic nervous activity and arterial cardiac baroreflex function evaluated by blood pressure and heart rate variability analysis. J Clin Anesth. 2006;18:87–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Bouwman RA, van’t Hof FN, de Ruijter W, et al. The mechanism of sevoflurane-induced cardioprotection is independent of the applied ischaemic stimulus in rat trabeculae. Br J Anaesth. 2006;97:307–314.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Bouwman RA, Salic K, Padding FG, et al. Cardioprotection via activation of protein kinase C-delta depends on modulation of the reverse mode of the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger. Circulation. 2006;114:I226–I232.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Kang J, Reynolds WP, Chen XL, Ji J, Wang H, Rampe DE. Mechanisms underlying the QT interval-prolonging effects of sevoflurane and its interactions with other QT-prolonging drugs. Anesthesiology. 2006;104:1015–1022.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Kerbaul F, Bellezza M, Mekkaoui C, et al. Sevoflurane alters right ventricular performance but not pulmonary vascular resistance in acutely instrumented anesthetized pigs. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2006;20:209–216.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Drake VJ, Koprowski SL, Lough J, Hu N, Smith SM. Trichloroethylene exposure during cardiac valvuloseptal morphogenesis alters cushion formation and cardiac hemodynamics in the avian embryo. Environ Health Perspect. 2006;114:842–847.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Mishima N, Hoffman S, Hill EG, Krug EL. Chick embryos exposed to trichloroethylene in an ex ova culture model show selective defects in early endocardial cushion tissue formation. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 2006;76:517–527.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Feuerstein G. The opioid system and central cardiovascular control: Analysis of controversies. Peptides. 1985;6 Suppl 2:51–56.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Lalley PM. Mu-opioid receptor agonist effects on medullary respiratory neurons in the cat: Evidence for involvement in certain types of ventilatory disturbances. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2003;285:R1287–R1304.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Naganobu K, Maeda N, Miyamoto T, Hagio M, Nakamura T, Takasaki M. Cardiorespiratory effects of epidural administration of morphine and fentanyl in dogs anesthetized with sevoflurane. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2004;224:67–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Hakim TS, Grunstein MM, Michel RP. Opiate action in the pulmonary circulation. Pulm Pharmacol. 1992;5:159–165.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Feldberg W, Wei E. Analysis of cardiovascular effects of morphine in the cat. Neuroscience. 1986;17:495–506.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Feuerstein G, Zukowska-Grojec Z. Effect of dermorphin and morphine on the sympathetic and cardiovascular system of the pithed rat. Neuropeptides. 1987;9:139–150.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. McNally GP, Carrive P. A telemetric examination of cardiovascular function during the development of, and recovery from, opiate dependence in rats. Physiol Behav. 2006;88:55–60.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Mahinda TB, Lovell BM, Taylor BK. Morphine-induced analgesia, hypotension, and bradycardia are enhanced in hypertensive rats. Anesth Analg. 2004;98:1698–1704, table of contents.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Chang WL, Lee SS, Su MJ. Attenuation of post-ischemia reperfusion injury by thaliporphine and morphine in rat hearts. J Biomed Sci. 2005;12:611–619.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Shi E, Jiang X, Bai H, Gu T, Chang Y, Wang J. Cardioprotective effects of morphine on rat heart suffering from ischemia and reperfusion. Chin Med J (Engl). 2003;116:1059–1062.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Barrere-Lemaire S, Combes N, Sportouch-Dukhan C, Richard S, Nargeot J, Piot C. Morphine mimics the antiapoptotic effect of preconditioning via an ins(1,4,5)P3 signaling pathway in rat ventricular myocytes. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2005;288:H83–H88.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Gross ER, Hsu AK, Gross GJ. The JAK/STAT pathway is essential for opioid-induced cardioprotection: JAK2 as a mediator of STAT3, akt, and GSK-3 beta. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2006;291:H827–H834.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Roy S, Balasubramanian S, Wang J, Chandrashekhar Y, Charboneau R, Barke R. Morphine inhibits VEGF expression in myocardial ischemia. Surgery. 2003;134:336–344.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Peart JN, Gross GJ. Cardioprotective effects of acute and chronic opioid treatment are mediated via different signaling pathways. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2006;291:H1746–H1753.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Jiang X, Shi E, Nakajima Y, Sato S. Inducible nitric oxide synthase mediates delayed cardioprotection induced by morphine in vivo: Evidence from pharmacologic inhibition and gene-knockout mice. Anesthesiology. 2004;101:82–88.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Peart JN, Gross GJ. Exogenous activation of delta- and kappa-opioid receptors affords cardioprotection in isolated murine heart. Basic Res Cardiol. 2004;99:29–37.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Peart JN, Gross GJ. Morphine-tolerant mice exhibit a profound and persistent cardioprotective phenotype. Circulation. 2004;109:1219–1222.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Kaye AD, Hoover JM, Baber SR, et al. The effects of meperidine in the pulmonary vascular bed of the cat. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2006;20:691–695.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Mollenhoff A, Nolte I, Kramer S. Anti-nociceptive efficacy of carprofen, levomethadone and buprenorphine for pain relief in cats following major orthopaedic surgery. J Vet Med A Physiol Pathol Clin Med. 2005;52:186–198.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Mills PC, Magnusson BM, Cross SE. Investigation of in vitro transdermal absorption of fentanyl from patches placed on skin samples obtained from various anatomic regions of dogs. Am J Vet Res. 2004;65:1697–1700.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Ambrisko TD, Hikasa Y, Sato K. Influence of medetomidine on stress-related neurohormonal and metabolic effects caused by butorphanol, fentanyl, and ketamine administration in dogs. Am J Vet Res. 2005;66:406–412.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Lennander O, Henriksson BA, Martner J, Biber B. Effects of fentanyl, nitrous oxide, or both, on baroreceptor reflex regulation in the cat. Br J Anaesth. 1996;77:399–403.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Porsius AJ, Borgdorff P, van Rooij HH, de Neef JH. The inhibitory effect of fentanyl, nicomorphine and 6-nicotinoyl morphine on phrenic nerve activity in relation to their cardiovascular effects in the anaesthetized cat. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther. 1987;286:123–135.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Kaye AD, Hoover JM, Ibrahim IN, et al. Analysis of the effects of fentanyl in the feline pulmonary vascular bed. Am J Ther. 2006;13:478–484.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Inoue T, Ko JC, Mandsager RE, Payton ME, Galloway DS, Lange DN. Efficacy and safety of preoperative etodolac and butorphanol administration in dogs undergoing ovariohysterectomy. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2006;42:178–188.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Gross DR, Tranquilli WJ, Greene SA, Grimm KA. Critical anthropomorphic evaluation and treatment of postoperative pain in rats and mice. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2003;222:1505–1510.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Torske KE, Dyson DH, Conlon PD. Cardiovascular effects of epidurally administered oxymorphone and an oxymorphone-bupivacaine combination in halothane-anesthetized dogs. Am J Vet Res. 1999;60:194–200.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Vesal N, Cribb PH, Frketic M. Postoperative analgesic and cardiopulmonary effects in dogs of oxymorphone administered epidurally and intramuscularly, and medetomidine administered epidurally: A comparative clinical study. Vet Surg. 1996;25:361–369.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Chance E, Paciorek PM, Todd MH, Waterfall JF. Comparison of the cardiovascular effects of meptazinol and naloxone following haemorrhagic shock in rats and cats. Br J Pharmacol. 1985;86:43–53.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Kaye AD, Phelps J, Baluch A, et al. The effects of sufentanil in the feline pulmonary vascular bed. Eur J Pharmacol. 2006;534:159–164.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Lecomte P, Ouattara A, Le Manach Y, Landi M, Coriat P, Riou B. The coronary and myocardial effects of remifentanil and sufentanil in the erythrocyte-perfused isolated rabbit heart. Anesth Analg. 2006;103:9–14, table of contents.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Pittarello D, Bonato R, Armellin G, Sorbara C. Alterations in left ventricular-arterial coupling and mechanical efficiency produced by remifentanil during cardiac anesthesia. Minerva Anestesiol. 2001;67:133–147.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Sohn JT, Murray PA. Inhibitory effects of etomidate and ketamine on adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channel relaxation in canine pulmonary artery. Anesthesiology. 2003;98:104–113.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Wang X, Huang ZG, Dergacheva O, et al. Ketamine inhibits inspiratory-evoked gamma-aminobutyric acid and glycine neurotransmission to cardiac vagal neurons in the nucleus ambiguus. Anesthesiology. 2005;103:353–359.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Costa-Farre C, Garcia F, Andaluz A, Torres R, de Mora F. Effect of H1- and H2-receptor antagonists on the hemodynamic changes induced by the intravenous administration of ketamine in sevoflurane-anesthetized cats. Inflamm Res. 2005;54:256–260.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Yang J, Li W, Duan M, et al. Large dose ketamine inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in rats. Inflamm Res. 2005;54:133–137.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Oguchi T, Kashimoto S, Yamaguchi T, Kumazawa T, Hashimoto K. Effects of intravenous anesthetics on function and metabolism in the reperfused working rat heart. Jpn J Pharmacol. 1995;68:413–421.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Saranteas T, Zotos N, Chantzi C, et al. Ketamine-induced changes in metabolic and endocrine parameters of normal and 2-kidney 1-clip rats. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2005;22:875–878.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Kim SJ, Kang HS, Lee MY, et al. Ketamine-induced cardiac depression is associated with increase in [Mg2+]i and activation of p38 MAP kinase and ERK 1/2 in guinea pig. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2006;349:716–722.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. DeRossi R, Junqueira AL, Beretta MP. Analgesic and systemic effects of ketamine, xylazine, and lidocaine after subarachnoid administration in goats. Am J Vet Res. 2003;64:51–56.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Kawano T, Oshita S, Takahashi A, et al. Molecular mechanisms underlying ketamine-mediated inhibition of sarcolemmal adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channels. Anesthesiology. 2005;102:93–101.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Schulte-Sasse U, Hess W, Tarnow J. Hemodynamic analysis of 6 different anesthesia induction procedures in coronary surgery patients. Anasth Intensivther Notfallmed. 1982;17:195–200.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Lundy JB, Slane ML, Frizzi JD. Acute adrenal insufficiency after a single dose of etomidate. J Intensive Care Med. 2007;22:111–117.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. McIntosh MP, Narita H, Kameyama Y, Rajewski RA, Goto H. Evaluation of mean arterial blood pressure, heart rate, and sympathetic nerve activity in rabbits after administration of two formulations of etomidate. Vet Anaesth Analg. 2007;34:149–156.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Devin A, Nogueira V, Averet N, Leverve X, Rigoulet M. Profound effects of the general anesthetic etomidate on oxidative phosphorylation without effects on their yield. J Bioenerg Biomembr. 2006;38:137–142.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Nakamura A, Kawahito S, Kawano T, et al. Differential effects of etomidate and midazolam on vascular adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channels: Isometric tension and patch clamp studies. Anesthesiology. 2007;106:515–522.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Shin IW, Sohn JT, Kim HJ, et al. Etomidate attenuates phenylephrine-induced contraction in isolated rat aorta. Can J Anaesth. 2005;52:927–934.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Pili-Floury S, Samain E, Bouillier H, et al. Etomidate alters calcium mobilization induced by angiotensin II in rat aortic smooth muscle cells. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2004;43:485–488.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Zaugg M, Lucchinetti E, Spahn DR, Pasch T, Garcia C, Schaub MC. Differential effects of anesthetics on mitochondrial K(ATP) channel activity and cardiomyocyte protection. Anesthesiology. 2002;97:15–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Ouedraogo N, Mounkaila B, Crevel H, Marthan R, Roux E. Effect of propofol and etomidate on normoxic and chronically hypoxic pulmonary artery. BMC Anesthesiol. 2006;6:2.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Ogawa K, Tanaka S, Murray PA. Inhibitory effects of etomidate and ketamine on endothelium-dependent relaxation in canine pulmonary artery. Anesthesiology. 2001;94:668–677.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Paris A, Philipp M, Tonner PH, et al. Activation of alpha 2B-adrenoceptors mediates the cardiovascular effects of etomidate. Anesthesiology. 2003;99:889–895.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Zeller A, Arras M, Lazaris A, Jurd R, Rudolph U. Distinct molecular targets for the central respiratory and cardiac actions of the general anesthetics etomidate and propofol. FASEB J. 2005;19:1677–1679.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Kulier AH, Turner LA, Vodanovic S, Contney S, Lathrop DA, Bosnjak ZJ. Multiple agents potentiate alpha1-adrenoceptor-induced conduction depression in canine cardiac Purkinge fibers. Anesthesiology. 2000;92:1713–1721.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Bazin JE, Dureuil B, Danialou G, et al. Effects of etomidate, propofol and thiopental anaesthesia on arteriolar tone in the rat diaphragm. Br J Anaesth. 1998;81:430–435.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Modig J. Positive effects of ketamine v. metomidate anesthesia on cardiovascular function, oxygen delivery and survival. studies with a porcine endotoxin model. Acta Chir Scand. 1987;153:7–13.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Stegmann GF, Bester L. Some cardiopulmonary effects of midazolam premedication in clenbuterol-treated bitches during surgical endoscopic examination of the uterus and ovariohysterectomy. J S Afr Vet Assoc. 2001;72:33–36.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Kim C, Shvarev Y, Takeda S, Sakamoto A, Lindahl SG, Eriksson LI. Midazolam depresses carotid body chemoreceptor activity. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2006;50:144–149.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Kanaya N, Murray PA, Damron DS. Effects of L-type Ca2+ channel modulation on direct myocardial effects of diazepam and midazolam in adult rat ventricular myocytes. J Anesth. 2006;20:17–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Win NN, Fukayama H, Kohase H, Umino M. The different effects of intravenous propofol and midazolam sedation on hemodynamic and heart rate variability. Anesth Analg. 2005;101:97–102, table of contents.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Hidaka S, Kawamoto M, Kurita S, Yuge O. Comparison of the effects of propofol and midazolam on the cardiovascular autonomic nervous system during combined spinal and epidural anesthesia. J Clin Anesth. 2005;17:36–43.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Klockgether-Radke AP, Pawlowski P, Neumann P, Hellige G. Mechanisms involved in the relaxing effect of midazolam on coronary arteries. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2005;22:135–139.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Juan-Fita MJ, Vargas ML, Hernandez J. Diazepam enhances inotropic responses to dopamine in rat ventricular myocardium. Anesth Analg. 2006;102:676–681.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Zahner MR, Li DP, Pan HL. Benzodiazepine inhibits hypothalamic presympathetic neurons by potentiation of GABAergic synaptic input. Neuropharmacology. 2007;52:467–475.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Suzuki M, Nishina M, Nakamura S, Maruyama K. Benzodiazepine-sensitive GABA(A) receptors in the commissural subnucleus of the NTS are involved in the carotid chemoreceptor reflex in rats. Auton Neurosci. 2004;110:108–113.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Park SE, Sohn JT, Kim C, et al. Diazepam attenuates phenylephrine-induced contractions in rat aorta. Anesth Analg. 2006;102:682–689.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Resstel LB, Joca SR, Moreira FA, Correa FM, Guimaraes FS. Effects of cannabidiol and diazepam on behavioral and cardiovascular responses induced by contextual conditioned fear in rats. Behav Brain Res. 2006;172:294–298.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Selmi AL, Barbudo-Selmi GR, Moreira CF, et al. Evaluation of sedative and cardiorespiratory effects of romifidine and romifidine-butorphanol in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2002;221:506–510.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Sy GY, Bousquet P, Feldman J. Opposite to alpha2-adrenergic agonists, an imidazoline I1 selective compound does not influence reflex bradycardia in rabbits. Auton Neurosci. 2006;128:19–24.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Aantaa R, Jalonen J. Perioperative use of alpha2-adrenoceptor agonists and the cardiac patient. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2006;23:361–372.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Murrell JC, Hellebrekers LJ. Medetomidine and dexmedetomidine: A review of cardiovascular effects and antinociceptive properties in the dog. Vet Anaesth Analg. 2005;32:117–127.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Dodam JR, Cohn LA, Durham HE, Szladovits B. Cardiopulmonary effects of medetomidine, oxymorphone, or butorphanol in selegiline-treated dogs. Vet Anaesth Analg. 2004;31:129–137.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Kuo WC, Keegan RD. Comparative cardiovascular, analgesic, and sedative effects of medetomidine, medetomidine-hydromorphone, and medetomidine-butorphanol in dogs. Am J Vet Res. 2004;65:931–937.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Joubert KE, Lobetti R. The cardiovascular and respiratory effects of medetomidine and thiopentone anaesthesia in dogs breathing at an altitude of 1486 m. J S Afr Vet Assoc. 2002;73:104–110.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Lamont LA, Bulmer BJ, Sisson DD, Grimm KA, Tranquilli WJ. Doppler echocardiographic effects of medetomidine on dynamic left ventricular outflow tract obstruction in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2002;221:1276–1281.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Selmi AL, Mendes GM, Lins BT, Figueiredo JP, Barbudo-Selmi GR. Evaluation of the sedative and cardiorespiratory effects of dexmedetomidine, dexmedetomidine-butorphanol, and dexmedetomidine-ketamine in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2003;222:37–41.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Kutter AP, Kastner SB, Bettschart-Wolfensberger R, Huhtinen M. Cardiopulmonary effects of dexmedetomidine in goats and sheep anaesthetised with sevoflurane. Vet Rec. 2006;159:624–629.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Rioja E, Santos M, Martinez Taboada F, Ibancovichi JA, Tendillo FJ. Cardiorespiratory and minimum alveolar concentration sparing effects of a continuous intravenous infusion of dexmedetomidine in halothane or isoflurane-anaesthetized rats. Lab Anim. 2006;40:9–15.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Hall DL, Rezvan E, Tatakis DN, Walters JD. Oral clonidine pretreatment prior to venous cannulation. Anesth Prog. 2006;53:34–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Kaczynska K, Szereda-Przestaszewska M. Clonidine-evoked respiratory effects in anaesthetized rats. Exp Physiol. 2006;91:269–275.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Burniston JG, Tan LB, Goldspink DF. Relative myotoxic and haemodynamic effects of the beta-agonists fenoterol and clenbuterol measured in conscious unrestrained rats. Exp Physiol. 2006;91:1041–1049.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Doheny MH, Waterfield CJ, Timbrell JA. The effects of the beta 2-agonist drug clenbuterol on taurine levels in heart and other tissues in the rat. Amino Acids. 1998;15:13–25.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Burniston JG, Ng Y, Clark WA, Colyer J, Tan LB, Goldspink DF. Myotoxic effects of clenbuterol in the rat heart and soleus muscle. J Appl Physiol. 2002;93:1824–1832.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Ferrer M, Salaices M, Sanchez M, Balfagon G. Different effects of acute clenbuterol on vasomotor response in mesenteric arteries from young and old spontaneously hypertensive rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 2003;466:289–299.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Soppa GK, Smolenski RT, Latif N, et al. Effects of chronic administration of clenbuterol on function and metabolism of adult rat cardiac muscle. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2005;288:H1468–H1476.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Burniston JG, Clark WA, Tan LB, Goldspink DF. Dose-dependent separation of the hypertrophic and myotoxic effects of the beta(2)-adrenergic receptor agonist clenbuterol in rat striated muscles. Muscle Nerve. 2006;33:655–663.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Jones SW, Baker DJ, Gardiner SM, Bennett T, Timmons JA, Greenhaff PL. The effect of the beta2-adrenoceptor agonist prodrug BRL-47672 on cardiovascular function, skeletal muscle myosin heavy chain, and MyoD expression in the rat. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2004;311:1225–1231.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Patiyal SN, Katoch SS. Tissue specific and variable collagen proliferation in swiss albino mice treated with clenbuterol. Physiol Res. 2006;55:97–103.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Sleeper MM, Kearns CF, McKeever KH. Chronic clenbuterol administration negatively alters cardiac function. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002;34:643–650.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Furihata Y, Motokawa Y, Murata S, et al. Cardiovascular effects of KUR-1246, a new tetrahydronaphthalen derivative beta2-adrenoceptor agonist and a selective uterine relaxant. Arzneimittelforschung. 2006;56:18–24.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Gabrys J, Konecki J, Glowacka M, et al. Proteinous amino acids in muscle cytosol of rats’ heart, after their treatment with propranolol, pentylenetetrazol or reserpine. Receptors Channels. 2004;10:83–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Shafi S, Stepanova IP, Fitzsimmons C, Bowyer DE, Born GV. Long-term low-dose treatment with reserpine of cholesterol-fed rabbits reduces cholesterol in plasma, non-high density lipoproteins and arterial walls. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2002;40:67–79.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Okada K, Shinozuka K, Shimoura K, Kobayashi Y, Hattori K, Nakase A. Effects of reserpine on the content and uptake of dopamine and noradrenaline in rabbit arteries. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 1993;20:261–267.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Wassilew G, David H, Fitzl G, Beskrownaya N, Sharow V. Ultrastructural morphometric investigation of the heart of rabbits after a single administration of reserpine. Exp Toxicol Pathol. 1993;45:217–222.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Kehler CH, Hebl JR, Soule CL, Gallagher WJ, Houlton AJ. The effect of reduced myocardial cyclic AMP content on the response to milrinone in the isolated guinea pig heart. J Heart Lung Transplant. 1997;16:636–642.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Walcott GP, Melnick SB, Killingsworth CR, Smith WM, Ideker RE. Effects of burst stimulation during ventricular fibrillation on cardiac function after defibrillation. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2003;285:H766–H774.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Park IY, Kim EJ, Park H, Fields K, Dunker AK, Kang C. Interaction between cardiac calsequestrin and drugs with known cardiotoxicity. Mol Pharmacol. 2005;67:97–104.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Lathers CM, Lipka LJ. Chlorpromazine: Cardiac arrhythmogenicity in the cat. Life Sci. 1986;38:521–538.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Yabuki M, Tani N, Yoshioka T, Nishibe H, Kanamaru H, Kaneko H. Local thrombus formation in the site of intravenous injection of chlorpromazine: Possible colloid-osmotic lysis of the local endothelial cells. Biol Pharm Bull. 2000;23:957–961.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Lee SY, Choi SY, Youm JB, et al. Block of HERG human K(+) channel and IKr of guinea pig cardiomyocytes by chlorpromazine. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2004;43:706–714.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Studenik C, Lemmens-Gruber R, Heistracher P. Proarrhythmic effects of antidepressants and neuroleptic drugs on isolated, spontaneously beating guinea-pig Purkinge fibers. Eur J Pharm Sci. 1999;7:113–118.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Flaim SF, Brannan MD, Swigart SC, Gleason MM, Muschek LD. Neuroleptic drugs attenuate calcium influx and tension development in rabbit thoracic aorta: Effects of pimozide, penfluridol, chlorpromazine, and haloperidol. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1985;82:1237–1241.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Takata Y, Kurihara J, Suzuki S, Okubo Y, Kato H. A rabbit model for evaluation of chlorpromazine-induced orthostatic hypotension. Biol Pharm Bull. 1999;22:457–462.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Cottle MK, Van Petten GR, van Muyden P. Maternal and fetal cardiovascular indices during fetal hypoxia due to cord compression in chronically cannulated sheep. II. responses to promazine. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1983;146:686–692.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Svendsen P, Carter AM. Blood gas tensions, acid-base status and cardiovascular function in miniature swine anaesthetized with halothane and methoxyflurane or intravenous metomidate hydrochloride. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1989;64:88–93.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Rezakhani A, Edjtehadi M, Szabuniewicz M. Prevention of thiopental and thiopental/halothane cardiac sensitization to epinephrine in the sheep. Can J Comp Med. 1977;41:389–395.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Choi SY, Koh YS, Jo SH. Inhibition of human ether-a-go-go-related gene K+ channel and IKr of guinea pig cardiomyocytes by antipsychotic drug trifluoperazine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2005;313:888–895.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Mohindroo A, Ahluwalia P. Effect of trifluoperazine on certain arterial wall lipid-metabolizing enzymes inducing atherosclerosis in rhesus monkeys. Lipids. 1997;32:867–872.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Belhani D, Frassati D, Megard R, et al. Cardiac lesions induced by neuroleptic drugs in the rabbit. Exp Toxicol Pathol. 2006;57:207–212.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Satoh Y, Sugiyama A, Takahara A, et al. The antipsychotic and antiemetic drug prochlorperazine delays the ventricular repolarization of the in situ canine heart. J Pharmacol Sci. 2005;97:101–106.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Shiotani M, Harada T, Abe J, et al. Practical application of guinea pig telemetry system for QT evaluation. J Toxicol Sci. 2005;30:239–247.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Kim MD, Eun SY, Jo SH. Blockade of HERG human K+ channel and IKr of guinea pig cardiomyocytes by prochlorperazine. Eur J Pharmacol. 2006;544:82–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Drolet B, Vincent F, Rail J, et al. Thioridazine lengthens repolarization of cardiac ventricular myocytes by blocking the delayed rectifier potassium current. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1999;288:1261–1268.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Crumb W, Llorca PM, Lancon C, Thomas GP, Garay RP, Hameg A. Effects of cyamemazine on hERG, INa, ICa, ito, isus and IK1 channel currents, and on the QTc interval in guinea pigs. Eur J Pharmacol. 2006;532:270–278.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Carmeliet E, Xhonneux R, Van Glabbeek A, Reneman R. Electrophysiological effects of droperidol in different cardiac tissues. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 1976;293:57–66.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Adamantidis MM, Kerram P, Caron JF, Dupuis BA. Droperidol exerts dual effects on repolarization and induces early after-depolarizations and triggered activity in rabbit Purkinge fibers. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1993;266:884–893.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Drolet B, Zhang S, Deschenes D, et al. Droperidol lengthens cardiac repolarization due to block of the rapid component of the delayed rectifier potassium current. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 1999;10:1597–1604.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Shiga T, Yong S, Carino J, Murray PA, Damron DS. Droperidol inhibits intracellular Ca2+, myofilament Ca2+ sensitivity, and contraction in rat ventricular myocytes. Anesthesiology. 2005;102:1165–1173.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Bustamante R, Valverde A. Determination of a sedative dose and influence of droperidol and midazolam on cardiovascular function in pigs. Can J Vet Res. 1997;61:246–250.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Sugiyama A, Satoh Y, Hashimoto K. In vivo canine model comparison of cardiohemodynamic and electrophysiological effects of a new antipsychotic drug aripiprazole (OPC-14597) to haloperidol. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2001;173:120–128.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Rasty S, Amin NB, Sabbah HN, Mishima T, Borzak S, Tisdale JE. Influence of i.v. haloperidol on ventricular repolarization and monophasic action potential duration in anesthetized dogs. Chest. 2004;125:1821–1829.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Bentley GA, Copeland IW. The effect of chronic haloperidol treatment on some cardiovascular parameters in cats. Br J Pharmacol. 1985;86:737–741.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Drici MD, Wang WX, Liu XK, Woosley RL, Flockhart DA. Prolongation of QT interval in isolated feline hearts by antipsychotic drugs. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1998;18:477–481.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Huang ZQ, Shi GG, Zheng JH, Liu B. Effects of N-n-butyl haloperidol iodide on rat myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury and L-type calcium current. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2003;24:757–763.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. van den Buuse M. Acute effects of antipsychotic drugs on cardiovascular responses to stress. Eur J Pharmacol. 2003;464:55–62.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Gepdiremen A, Aydin N, Halici Z, et al. Chronic treatment of haloperidol causes vasoconstriction on basilar arteries of rats, dose dependently. Pharmacol Res. 2004;50:569–574.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  185. Bebarova M, Matejovic P, Pasek M, Novakova M. Effect of haloperidol on transient outward potassium current in rat ventricular myocytes. Eur J Pharmacol. 2006;550:15–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Ishida H, Hoshiai K, Hoshiai M, Genka C, Hirota Y, Nakazawa H. Haloperidol prolongs diastolic phase of ca(2+) transient in cardiac myocytes. Jpn J Physiol. 1999;49:479–484.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Hatip-Al-Khatib I, Bolukbasi-Hatip F. Modulation of the negative inotropic effect of haloperidol by drugs with positive inotropic effects in isolated rabbit heart. Pharmacology. 2002;66:19–25.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Maayani S, Wilkinson CW, Stollak JS. 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor in rabbit aorta: Characterization by butyrophenone analogs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1984;229:346–350.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Hapke HJ, Holl C. Effects of dopamine on the coronary vessels of swine. Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr. 1992;99:66–69.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. Lees P, Serrano L. Effects of azaperone on cardiovascular and respiratory functions in the horse. Br J Pharmacol. 1976;56:263–269.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Gregory NG, Wilkins LJ. Effect of azaperone on cardiovascular responsiveness in stress-sensitive pigs. J Vet Pharmacol Ther. 1986;9:164–170.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Pacher P, Kecskemeti V. Cardiovascular side effects of new antidepressants and antipsychotics: New drugs, old concerns? Curr Pharm Des. 2004;10:2463–2475.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Pacher P, Ungvari Z, Nanasi PP, Furst S, Kecskemeti V. Speculations on difference between tricyclic and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants on their cardiac effects. is there any? Curr Med Chem. 1999;6:469–480.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Pacher P, Kecskemeti V. Cardiovascular effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants. Orv Hetil. 2004;145:425–431.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Aubert M, Osterwalder R, Wagner B, et al. Evaluation of the rabbit Purkinge fibre assay as an in vitro tool for assessing the risk of drug-induced torsades de pointes in humans. Drug Saf. 2006;29:237–254.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Kobayashi T, Washiyama K, Ikeda K. Inhibition of G protein-activated inwardly rectifying K+ channels by various antidepressant drugs. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004;29:1841–1851.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  197. Gintant GA, Limberis JT, McDermott JS, Wegner CD, Cox BF. The canine Purkinge fiber: An in vitro model system for acquired long QT syndrome and drug-induced arrhythmogenesis. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2001;37:607–618.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Bateman DN, Thanacoody HK, Waring WS. Digitalis intoxication induced by paroxetine co-administration. Lancet. 2006;368:1962–1963.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Fossa AA, Gorczyca W, Wisialowski T, et al. Electrical alternans and hemodynamics in the anesthetized guinea pig can discriminate the cardiac safety of antidepressants. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods. 2007;55:78–85.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Isbister GK, Bowe SJ, Dawson A, Whyte IM. Relative toxicity of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in overdose. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 2004;42:277–285.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Goodnick PJ, Jerry J, Parra F. Psychotropic drugs and the ECG: Focus on the QTc interval. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2002;3:479–498.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. Rasmussen SL, Overo KF, Tanghoj P. Cardiac safety of citalopram: Prospective trials and retrospective analyses. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1999;19:407–415.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  203. Hamplova-Peichlova J, Krusek J, Paclt I, Slavicek J, Lisa V, Vyskocil F. Citalopram inhibits L-type calcium channel current in rat cardiomyocytes in culture. Physiol Res. 2002;51:317–321.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. Witchel HJ, Pabbathi VK, Hofmann G, Paul AA, Hancox JC. Inhibitory actions of the selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor citalopram on HERG and ventricular L-type calcium currents. FEBS Lett. 2002;512:59–66.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Pacher P, Bagi Z, Lako-Futo Z, Ungvari Z, Nanasi PP, Kecskemeti V. Cardiac electrophysiological effects of citalopram in guinea pig papillary muscle comparison with clomipramine. Gen Pharmacol. 2000;34:17–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. Maertens C, Droogmans G, Verbesselt R, Nilius B. Block of volume-regulated anion channels by selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2002;366:158–165.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  207. Pousti A, Deemyad T, Malihi G. Mechanism of inhibitory effect of citalopram on isolated guinea-pig atria in relation to adenosine receptor. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2004;19:347–350.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  208. Pousti A, Malihi G, Naghibi B. Effect of citalopram on ouabain-induced arrhythmia in isolated guinea-pig atria. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2003;18:121–124.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. Degner D, Grohmann R, Kropp S, et al Severe adverse drug reactions of antidepressants: Results of the german multicenter drug surveillance program AMSP. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2004;37 Suppl 1:S39–S45.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  210. Wanstall JC, Fiore SA, Gambino A, Chess-Williams R. Potentiation of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) responses by a 5-HT uptake inhibitor in pulmonary and systemic vessels: Effects of exposing rats to hypoxia. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2003;368:520–527.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Marcos E, Adnot S, Pham MH, et al. Serotonin transporter inhibitors protect against hypoxic pulmonary hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;168:487–493.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  212. Barak Y, Swartz M, Levy D, Weizman R. Age-related differences in the side effect profile of citalopram. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2003;27:545–548.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Paclt I, Slavicek J, Dohnalova A, Kitzlerova E, Pisvejcova K. Electrocardiographic dose-dependent changes in prophylactic doses of dosulepine, lithium and citalopram. Physiol Res. 2003;52:311–317.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Slavicek J, Paclt I, Hamplova J, Kittnar O, Trefny Z, Horacek BM. Antidepressant drugs and heart electrical field. Physiol Res. 1998;47:297–300.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  215. Lu HR, Vlaminckx E, Teisman A, Gallacher DJ. Choice of cardiac tissue plays an important role in the evaluation of drug-induced prolongation of the QT interval in vitro in rabbit. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods. 2005;52:90–105.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  216. Eckardt L, Breithardt G, Haverkamp W. Electrophysiologic characterization of the antipsychotic drug sertindole in a rabbit heart model of torsades de pointes: Low torsadogenic potential despite QT prolongation. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2002;300:64–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  217. Drolet B, Rousseau G, Daleau P, Cardinal R, Simard C, Turgeon J. Pimozide (orap) prolongs cardiac repolarization by blocking the rapid component of the delayed rectifier potassium current in native cardiac myocytes. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2001;6:255–260.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  218. Lee SY, Kim YJ, Kim KT, Choe H, Jo SH. Blockade of HERG human K+ channels and IKr of guinea-pig cardiomyocytes by the antipsychotic drug clozapine. Br J Pharmacol. 2006;148:499–509.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  219. Gluais P, Bastide M, Caron J, Adamantidis M. Risperidone prolongs cardiac action potential through reduction of K+ currents in rabbit myocytes. Eur J Pharmacol. 2002;444:123–132.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  220. Drolet B, Yang T, Daleau P, Roden DM, Turgeon J. Risperidone prolongs cardiac repolarization by blocking the rapid component of the delayed rectifier potassium current. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2003;41:934–937.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  221. Magyar J, Banyasz T, Bagi Z, et al. Electrophysiological effects of risperidone in mammalian cardiac cells. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2002;366:350–356.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  222. Biziere K, Worms P, Kan JP, Mandel P, Garattini S, Roncucci R. Minaprine, a new drug with antidepressant properties. Drugs Exp Clin Res. 1985;11:831–840.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  223. Baizman ER, Ezrin AM, Ferrari RA, Luttinger D. Pharmacologic profile of fezolamine fumarate: A nontricyclic antidepressant in animal models. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1987;243:40–54.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  224. Depin JC, Betbeder-Matibet A, Bonhomme Y, Muller AJ, Berthelon JJ. Pharmacology of lortalamine, a new potent non-tricyclic antidepressant. Arzneimittelforschung. 1985;35:1655–1662.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. Ilback NG, Stalhandske T. Cardiovascular effects of xylazine recorded with telemetry in the dog. J Vet Med A Physiol Pathol Clin Med. 2003;50:479–483.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  226. Allen DG, Downey RS. Echocardiographic assessment of cats anesthetized with xylazine-sodium pentobarbital. Can J Comp Med. 1983;47:281–283.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  227. DeRossi R, Junqueira AL, Beretta MP. Analgesic and systemic effects of xylazine, lidocaine and their combination after subarachnoid administration in goats. J S Afr Vet Assoc. 2005;76:79–84.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  228. Teng B, Muir WW, 3rd. Effects of xylazine on canine coronary artery vascular rings. Am J Vet Res. 2004;65:431–435.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. van Woerkens LJ, Duncker DJ, Huigen RJ, van der Giessen WJ, Verdouw PD. Redistribution of cardiac output caused by opening of arteriovenous anastomoses by a combination of azaperone and metomidate. Br J Anaesth. 1990;65:393–399.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Orr JA, Manohar M, Will JA. Cardiopulmonary effects of the combination of neuroleptic azaperone and hypnotic metomidate in swine. Am J Vet Res. 1976;37:1305–1308.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  231. Pypendop B, Verstegen J. Cardiorespiratory effects of a combination of medetomidine, midazolam, and butorphanol in dogs. Am J Vet Res. 1999;60:1148–1154.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  232. Difilippo SM, Norberg PJ, Suson UD, Savino AM, Reim DA. A comparison of xylazine and medetomidine in an anesthetic combination in New Zealand white rabbits. Contemp Top Lab Anim Sci. 2004;43:32–34.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Kojima K, Nishimura R, Mutoh T, Hong SH, Mochizuki M, Sasaki N. Effects of medetomidine-midazolam, acepromazine-butorphanol, and midazolam-butorphanol on induction dose of thiopental and propofol and on cardiopulmonary changes in dogs. Am J Vet Res. 2002;63:1671–1679.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Kojima K, Nishimura R, Mutoh T, et al. Comparison of cardiopulmonary effects of medetomidine-midazolam, acepromazine-butorphanol and midazolam-butorphanol in dogs. Zentralbl Veterinarmed A. 1999;46:353–359.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  235. Bettschart-Wolfensberger R, Bowen IM, Freeman SL, Weller R, Clarke KW. Medetomidine-ketamine anaesthesia induction followed by medetomidine-propofol in ponies: Infusion rates and cardiopulmonary side effects. Equine Vet J. 2003;35:308–313.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Henke J, Baumgartner C, Roltgen I, Eberspacher E, Erhardt W. Anaesthesia with midazolam/medetomidine/fentanyl in chinchillas (chinchilla lanigera) compared to anaesthesia with xylazine/ketamine and medetomidine/ketamine. J Vet Med A Physiol Pathol Clin Med. 2004;51:259–264.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  237. Kushiro T, Yamashita K, Umar MA, et al. Anesthetic and cardiovascular effects of balanced anesthesia using constant rate infusion of midazolam-ketamine-medetomidine with inhalation of oxygen-sevoflurane (MKM-OS anesthesia) in horses. J Vet Med Sci. 2005;67:379–384.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  238. Appleton GO, Li Y, Taffet GE, et al. Determinants of cardiac electrophysiological properties in mice. J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 2004;11:5–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  239. Ingwersen W, Allen DG, Dyson DH, Black WD, Goldberg MT, Valliant AE. Cardiopulmonary effects of a ketamine/acepromazine combination in hypovolemic cats. Can J Vet Res. 1988;52:423–427.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  240. Sumitra M, Manikandan P, Rao KV, Nayeem M, Manohar BM, Puvanakrishnan R. Cardiorespiratory effects of diazepam-ketamine, xylazine-ketamine and thiopentone anesthesia in male Wistar rats - a comparative analysis. Life Sci. 2004;75:1887–1896.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  241. Saha DC, Saha AC, Malik G, Astiz ME, Rackow EC. Comparison of cardiovascular effects of tiletamine-zolazepam, pentobarbital, and ketamine-xylazine in male rats. J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 2007;46:74–80.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  242. Rodrigues SF, de Oliveira MA, Martins JO, et al Differential effects of chloral hydrate- and ketamine/xylazine-induced anesthesia by the s.c. route. Life Sci. 2006;79:1630–1637.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. Musizza B, Stefanovska A, McClintock PV, et al. Interactions between cardiac, respiratory and EEG-delta oscillations in rats during anaesthesia. J Physiol. 2007;580:315–326.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  244. Kober F, Iltis I, Cozzone PJ, Bernard M. Cine-MRI assessment of cardiac function in mice anesthetized with ketamine/xylazine and isoflurane. MAGMA. 2004;17:157–161.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  245. Kober F, Iltis I, Cozzone PJ, Bernard M. Myocardial blood flow mapping in mice using high-resolution spin labeling magnetic resonance imaging: Influence of ketamine/xylazine and isoflurane anesthesia. Magn Reson Med. 2005;53:601–606.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  246. Schaefer A, Meyer GP, Brand B, Hilfiker-Kleiner D, Drexler H, Klein G. Effects of anesthesia on diastolic function in mice assessed by echocardiography. Echocardiography. 2005;22:665–670.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  247. Stypmann J, Engelen MA, Breithardt AK, et al. Doppler echocardiography and tissue doppler imaging in the healthy rabbit: Differences of cardiac function during awake and anaesthetised examination. Int J Cardiol. 2007;115:164–170.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  248. Kerr CL, McDonell WN, Young SS. Cardiopulmonary effects of romifidine/ketamine or xylazine/ketamine when used for short duration anesthesia in the horse. Can J Vet Res. 2004;68:274–282.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  249. Picavet MT, Gasthuys FM, Laevens HH, Watts SA. Cardiopulmonary effects of combined xylazine-guaiphenesin-ketamine infusion and extradural (inter-coccygeal lidocaine) anaesthesia in calves. Vet Anaesth Analg. 2004;31:11–19.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  250. Newell SM, Ko JC, Ginn PE, et al. Effects of three sedative protocols on glomerular filtration rate in clinically normal dogs. Am J Vet Res. 1997;58:446–450.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  251. Gross ME, Smith JA, Tranquilli WJ. Cardiorespiratory effects of combined midazolam and butorphanol in isoflurane-anesthetized cats. Vet Surg. 1993;22:159–162.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  252. Hexeberg E, Hexeberg S, Hessevik I, Fosse RT. Midazolam in combination with fentanyl/fluanisone and nitrous oxide as anaesthesia in rabbits - cardiovascular parameters. Lab Anim. 1995;29:400–406.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  253. Schauvliege S, Narine K, Bouchez S, et al. Refined anaesthesia for implantation of engineered experimental aortic valves in the pulmonary artery using a right heart bypass in sheep. Lab Anim. 2006;40:341–352.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  254. Dyson DH, Allen DG, Ingwersen W, Pascoe PJ. Evaluation of acepromazine/meperidine/atropine premedication followed by thiopental anesthesia in the cat. Can J Vet Res. 1988;52:419–422.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  255. Liehmann L, Mosing M, Auer U. A comparison of cardiorespiratory variables during isoflurane-fentanyl and propofol-fentanyl anaesthesia for surgery in injured cats. Vet Anaesth Analg. 2006;33:158–168.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  256. Hellyer P, Muir WW, 3rd, Hubbell JA, Sally J. Cardiorespiratory effects of the intravenous administration of tiletamine-zolazepam to dogs. Vet Surg. 1989;18:160–165.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  257. Natalini CC, Alves SD, Guedes AG, Polydoro AS, Brondani JT, Bopp S. Epidural administration of tiletamine/zolazepam in horses. Vet Anaesth Analg. 2004;31:79–85.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  258. Jacobson C. A novel anaesthetic regimen for surgical procedures in guinea pigs. Lab Anim. 2001;35:271–276.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  259. Foxall G, McCahon R, Lamb J, Hardman JG, Bedforth NM. Levobupivacaine-induced seizures and cardiovascular collapse treated with intralipid. Anaesthesia. 2007;62:516–518.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  260. Newton DJ, McLeod GA, Khan F, Belch JJ. Mechanisms influencing the vasoactive effects of lidocaine in human skin. Anaesthesia. 2007;62:146–150.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  261. Gerhardt MA, Gunka VB, Miller RJ. Hemodynamic stability during labor and delivery with continuous epidural infusion. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 2006;106:692–698.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  262. Braun C, Hofmeister EH, Lockwood AA, Parfitt SL. Effects of diazepam or lidocaine premedication on propofol induction and cardiovascular parameters in dogs. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2007;43:8–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  263. Persson F, Andersson B, Duker G, Jacobson I, Carlsson L. Functional effects of the late sodium current inhibition by AZD7009 and lidocaine in rabbit isolated atrial and ventricular tissue and Purkinge fibre. Eur J Pharmacol. 2007;558:133–143.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  264. Stehr SN, Ziegeler JC, Pexa A, et al. The effects of lipid infusion on myocardial function and bioenergetics in l-bupivacaine toxicity in the isolated rat heart. Anesth Analg. 2007;104:186–192.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  265. Hersh EV, Giannakopoulos H, Levin LM, et al. The pharmacokinetics and cardiovascular effects of high-dose articaine with 1:100,000 and 1:200,000 epinephrine. J Am Dent Assoc. 2006;137:1562–1571.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  266. Royse CF, Royse AG. The myocardial and vascular effects of bupivacaine, levobupivacaine, and ropivacaine using pressure volume loops. Anesth Analg. 2005;101:679–687, table of contents.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  267. Chang KS, Morrow DR, Kuzume K, Andresen MC. Bupivacaine inhibits baroreflex control of heart rate in conscious rats. Anesthesiology. 2000;92:197–207.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  268. Borer LR, Peel JE, Seewald W, Schawalder P, Spreng DE. Effect of carprofen, etodolac, meloxicam, or butorphanol in dogs with induced acute synovitis. Am J Vet Res. 2003;64:1429–1437.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  269. Scheiman JM, Tillner A, Pohl T, et al. Reduction of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug induced gastric injury and leucocyte endothelial adhesion by octreotide. Gut. 1997;40:720–725.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  270. Jones MK, Wang H, Peskar BM, et al. Inhibition of angiogenesis by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: Insight into mechanisms and implications for cancer growth and ulcer healing. Nat Med. 1999;5:1418–1423.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  271. Momma K, Takao A. Transplacental cardiovascular effects of four popular analgesics in rats. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990;162:1304–1310.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  272. Cappon GD, Gupta U, Cook JC, Tassinari MS, Hurtt ME. Comparison of the developmental toxicity of aspirin in rabbits when administered throughout organogenesis or during sensitive windows of development. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol. 2003;68:38–46.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  273. Frendin JH, Bostrom IM, Kampa N, Eksell P, Haggstrom JU, Nyman GC. Effects of carprofen on renal function during medetomidine-propofol-isoflurane anesthesia in dogs. Am J Vet Res. 2006;67:1967–1973.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  274. Hennan JK, Huang J, Barrett TD, et al. Effects of selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition on vascular responses and thrombosis in canine coronary arteries. Circulation. 2001;104:820–825.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  275. Dubey K, Balani DK, Pillai KK. Potential adverse interaction between aspirin and lisinopril in hypertensive rats. Hum Exp Toxicol. 2003;22:143–147.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  276. Grosfeld JL, Phelps TO, Jesseph JM. Effect of stress and aspirin on extrahepatic portal hypertension in rats. J Pediatr Surg. 1975;10:609–615.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  277. Peter FW, Franken RJ, Wang WZ, et al. Effect of low dose aspirin on thrombus formation at arterial and venous microanastomoses and on the tissue microcirculation. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1997;99:1112–1121.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  278. Vesvres MH, Doutremepuich F, Lalanne MC, Doutremepuich C. Effects of aspirin on embolization in an arterial model of laser-induced thrombus formation. Haemostasis. 1993;23:8–12.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  279. Belougne-Malfatti E, Aguejouf O, Doutremepuich F, Belon P, Doutremepuich C. Combination of two doses of acetyl salicylic acid: Experimental study of arterial thrombosis. Thromb Res. 1998;90:215–221.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  280. Napoli C, Aldini G, Wallace JL, et al. Efficacy and age-related effects of nitric oxide-releasing aspirin on experimental restenosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2002;99:1689–1694.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  281. Borgdorff P, Tangelder GJ, Paulus WJ. Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors enhance shear stress-induced platelet aggregation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;48:817–823.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  282. Wang D, Wang M, Cheng Y, Fitzgerald GA. Cardiovascular hazard and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2005;5:204–210.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  283. Gershlick AH, Syndercombe Court YD, Murday AJ, Lewis CT, Mills PG. Adverse effects of high dose aspirin on platelet adhesion to experimental autogenous vein grafts. Cardiovasc Res. 1985;19:770–776.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  284. Debons AF, Fani K, Jimenez FA. Enhancement of experimental atherosclerosis by aspirin. J Toxicol Environ Health. 1981;8:899–906.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  285. Cheng Y, Wang M, Yu Y, Lawson J, Funk CD, Fitzgerald GA. Cyclooxygenases, microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1, and cardiovascular function. J Clin Invest. 2006;116:1391–1399.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  286. Fosslien E. Cardiovascular complications of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 2005;35:347–385.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  287. Vizi ES, Tuba Z, Maho S, et al. A new short-acting non-depolarizing muscle relaxant (SZ1677) without cardiovascular side-effects. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2003;47:291–300.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  288. Castillo-Zamora C, Lespron Mdel C, Nava-Ocampo AA. Similar preoperative hemodynamic response to pancuronium and rocuronium in high-risk cardiac surgical patients. Minerva Anestesiol. 2005;71:769–773.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  289. Moore EW, Hunter JM. The new neuromuscular blocking agents: Do they offer any advantages? Br J Anaesth. 2001;87:912–925.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  290. Kampe S, Krombach JW, Diefenbach C. Muscle relaxants. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 2003;17:137–146.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  291. Cope TM, Hunter JM. Selecting neuromuscular-blocking drugs for elderly patients. Drugs Aging. 2003;20:125–140.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  292. Plaud B, Marty J, Debaene B, et al The cardiovascular effects of mivacurium in hypertensive patients. Anesth Analg. 2002;95:379–384, table of contents.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  293. Fodale V, Santamaria LB. Laudanosine, an atracurium and cisatracurium metabolite. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2002;19:466–473.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  294. Jonsson M, Dabrowski M, Gurley DA, et al. Activation and inhibition of human muscular and neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors by succinylcholine. Anesthesiology. 2006;104:724–733.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  295. Robertson EN, Driessen JJ, Booij LH. Suxamethonium administration prolongs the duration of action of subsequent rocuronium. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2004;21:734–737.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  296. Heerdt PM, Kang R, The’ A, Hashim M, Mook RJ, Jr, Savarese JJ. Cardiopulmonary effects of the novel neuromuscular blocking drug GW280430A (AV430A) in dogs. Anesthesiology. 2004;100:846–851.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  297. Savarese JJ, Belmont MR, Hashim MA, et al. Preclinical pharmacology of GW280430A (AV430A) in the rhesus monkey and in the cat: A comparison with mivacurium. Anesthesiology. 2004;100:835–845.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  298. Kastrup MR, Marsico FF, Ascoli FO, Becker T, Soares JH, Gomez de Segura IA. Neuromuscular blocking properties of atracurium during sevoflurane or propofol anaesthesia in dogs. Vet Anaesth Analg. 2005;32:222–227.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  299. Igarashi A, Amagasa S, Horikawa H, Shirahata M. Vecuronium directly inhibits hypoxic neurotransmission of the rat carotid body. Anesth Analg. 2002;94:117–122, table of contents.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  300. Gyermek L, Lee C, Cho YM, Nguyen N. Quaternary derivatives of granatanol diesters: Potent, ultrashort acting non-depolarizing neuromuscular relaxants. Life Sci. 2006;79:559–569.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  301. Fazekas T, Krassoi I, Lengyel C, Varro A, Papp JG. Suppression of erythromycin-induced early after-depolarizations and torsades de pointes ventricular tachycardia by mexiletine. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1998;21:147–150.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  302. Roden DM. Torsade de pointes. Clin Cardiol. 1993;16:683–686.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  303. Chiba K, Sugiyama A, Hagiwara T, Takahashi S, Takasuna K, Hashimoto K. In vivo experimental approach for the risk assessment of fluoroquinolone antibacterial agents-induced long QT syndrome. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004;486:189–200.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  304. Hahm S, Dresner HS, Podwall D, et al. DNA biomarkers antecede semiquantitative anthracycline cardiomyopathy. Cancer Invest. 2003;21:53–67.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  305. Kim C, Kim N, Joo H, et al. Modulation by melatonin of the cardiotoxic and antitumor activities of adriamycin. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2005;46:200–210.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  306. L’Ecuyer T, Sanjeev S, Thomas R, et al. DNA damage is an early event in doxorubicin-induced cardiac myocyte death. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2006;291:H1273–H1280.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Gross, D.R. (2009). Cardiovascular Effects of Anesthetics, Sedatives, Postoperative Analgesic Agents, and Other Pharmaceuticals. In: Animal Models in Cardiovascular Research. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-95962-7_7

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics