Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Sexual Transmission: Chlamydia trachomatis

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Modern Infectious Disease Epidemiology

Part of the book series: Statistics for Biology and Health ((SBH))

  • 7610 Accesses

Abstract

Chlamydia trachomatis is an obligate intracellular Gram negative bacterium, which infects mucosal epithelial cells (Schachter and Stephens 2008). Chlamydia display a unique two-stage life cycle consisting of an infectious stage and a replicative stage. During the infectious stage the organism assumes a metabolically inactive form, the elementary body , which can survive in the host extracellular environment. Upon entry into a host cell the elementary body transforms within a host cell vacuole into a metabolically active, replicating form, the reticulate body. Over a period of approximately 36–72 hours of growth and replication, the reticulate bodies transform into infectious elementary bodies, which are extruded from the cell and repeat the cycle by infecting additional cells of the same or a second host.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adams EJ, Turner KM, Edmunds WJ (2007) The cost effectiveness of opportunistic chlamydia screening in England. Sex Transm Infect 83:267–274

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andersen B, Gundgaard J, Kretzschmar M, Olsen J, Welte R, Oster-Gaard L (2006) Prediction of costs, effectiveness, and disease control of a population-based program using home sampling for diagnosis of urogenital Chlamydia trachomatis Infections. Sex Transm Dis 33:407–415

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arthur G, Lowndes CM, Blackham J, Fenton KA (2005) Divergent approaches to partner notification for sexually transmitted infections across the European Union. Sex Transm Dis 32:734–741

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bakken IJ (2008) Chlamydia trachomatis and ectopic pregnancy: recent epidemiological findings. Curr Opin Infect Dis 21:77–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berman SM, Ellen JM (2008) Adolescents and STDs, including HIV infection. In: Holmes KK, Sparling PF, Stamm WE, Piot P, Wasserheit JN, Corey L, Cohen MS, Watts DH (eds) Sexually Transmitted Diseases. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 165–185

    Google Scholar 

  • Britton TF, DeLisle S, Fine D (1992) STDs and family planning clinics: a regional program for Chlamydia control that works. Am J Gynecol Health 6:80–87

    Google Scholar 

  • Brunham RC, Pourbohloul B, Mak S, White R, Rekart ML (2005) The unexpected impact of a Chlamydia trachomatis infection control program on susceptibility to reinfection. J Infect Dis 192:1836–1844

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1993) Recommendations for the prevention and management of Chlamydia trachomatis infections, 1993. MMWR Recomm Rep 42:1–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1995) Ectopic pregnancy – United States, 1990–1992. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 44:46–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1998) Guidelines for treatment of sexually transmitted diseases 1998. MMWR Recomm Rep 47:1–111

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2002) Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines 2002. MMWR Recomm Rep 51:1–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2006) Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2006. MMWR Recomm Rep 55:1–94

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2008a) Recommendations for partner services programs for HIV infection, syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydial infection. MMWR Recomm Rep 57:1–83

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2008b) Sexually transmitted disease surveillance, 2007. Atlanta, GA, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2009) Sexually transmitted disease surveillance 2007 supplement, chlamydia prevalence monitoring project annual report 2007. Atlanta, GA, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaparro MV, Ghosh S, Nashed A, Poliak A (1978) Laparoscopy for the confirmation and prognostic evaluation of pelvic inflammatory disease. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 15:307–309

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen MY, Fairley CK, Donovan B (2005) Discordance between trends in chlamydia notifications and hospital admission rates for chlamydia related diseases in New South Wales, Australia. Sex Transm Infect 81:318–322

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coste J, Bouyer J, Ughetto S, Gerbaud L, Fernandez H, Pouly JL, Job-Spira N (2004) Ectopic pregnancy is again on the increase. Recent trends in the incidence of ectopic pregnancies in France (1992–2002). Hum Reprod 19:2014–2018

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coste J, Job-Spira N , ublet-Cuvelier B , Germain E , Glowaczower E , Fernandez H , Pouly JL (1994) Incidence of ectopic pregnancy. First results of a population-based register in France. Hum Reprod 9:742–745

    Google Scholar 

  • Coyne KM, Cohen CE, Smith NA, Mandalia S, Barton S (2007) Patient-delivered partner medication in the UK: an unlawful but popular choice. Int J STD AIDS 18:829–831

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Datta SD, Sternberg M, Johnson RE, Berman S, Papp JR, McQuillan G, Weinstock H (2007) Gonorrhea and chlamydia in the United States among persons 14 to 39 years of age, 1999 to 2002. Ann Intern Med 147:89–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Datta, S. D., Sternberg, M., Satterwhite, C. L., Johnson, R., Papp, J., McQuillan, G., Berman, S.,, Weinstock, H (2008) Trends in chlamydia population prevalence in the US, 1999-2006. Results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Annual Meeting, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies HD, Wang EE (1996) Periodic health examination, 1996 update: 2. Screening for chlamydial infections. Canadian Task Force on the Periodic Health Examination. CMAJ 154:1631–1644

    Google Scholar 

  • de Vries R, van Bergen JE, de Jong-van den Berg LT, Postma MJ, PILOT-CT Study Group (2008) Cost-utility of repeated screening for Chlamydia trachomatis. Value Health 11: 272–274

    Google Scholar 

  • de Vries R, van Bergen JE, de Jong-van den Berg LT, Postma MJ, PILOT-CT Study Group (2006) Systematic screening for Chlamydia trachomatis: estimating cost-effectiveness using dynamic modeling and Dutch data. Value Health 9:1–11

    Google Scholar 

  • den Hartog JE, Land JA, Stassen FR, Slobbe-van Drunen ME, Kessels AG, Bruggeman CA (2004) The role of chlamydia genus-specific and species-specific IgG antibody testing in predicting tubal disease in subfertile women. Hum Reprod 19:1380–1384

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doherty IA, Padian NS, Marlow C, Aral SO (2005) Determinants and consequences of sexual networks as they affect the spread of sexually transmitted infections. J Infect Dis 191 (suppl 1):S42–S54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Douglas JM (2008) Dear colleague: Announcing new national chlamydia screening coordinator. Division of STD Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/std/general/dcl-3-31-2008-chlam-coord.pdf. Accessed April 11, 2009

  • Doxanakis A, Hayes RD, Chen MY, Gurrin LC, Hocking J, Bradshaw CS, Williams H, Fairley CK (2008) Missing pelvic inflammatory disease? Substantial differences in the rate at which doctors diagnose PID. Sex Transm Infect 84:518–523

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Egger M, Low N, Smith GD, Lindblom B, Herrmann B (1998) Screening for chlamydial infections and the risk of ectopic pregnancy in a county in Sweden: ecological analysis. Brit Med J 316:1776–1780

    Google Scholar 

  • Farley TA, Cohen DA, Elkins W (2003) Asymptomatic sexually transmitted diseases: The case for screening. Prev Med 36:502–509

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farquhar CM (2005) Ectopic pregnancy. Lancet 366:583–591

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fenton KA, Korovessis C, Johnson AM, McCadden A, McManus S, Wellings K, Mercer CH, Carder C, Copas AJ, Nanchahal K, Macdowall W, Ridgway G, Field J, Erens B (2001) Sexual behaviour in Britain: reported sexually transmitted infections and prevalent genital Chlamydia trachomatis infection. Lancet 358:1851–1854

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fenton KA, Mercer CH, McManus S, Erens B, Wellings K, Macdowall W, Byron CL, Copas AJ, Nanchahal K, Field J, Johnson AM (2005) Ethnic variations in sexual behaviour in Great Britain and risk of sexually transmitted infections: a probability survey. Lancet 365:1246–1255

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fenton KA, Ward H (2004) National chlamydia screening programme in England: making progress. Sex Transm Infect 80:331–333

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fine D, Dicker L, Mosure D, Berman S (2008) Increasing chlamydia positivity in women screened in family planning clinics: do we know why? Sex Transm Dis 35:47–52

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisman DN, Spain CV, Salmon ME, Goldberg M (2008) The Philadelphia high-school STD screening program: Key insights from dynamic transmission modeling. Sex Transm Dis 35:S61–S65

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garnett GP (2002) An introduction to mathematical models in sexually transmitted disease epidemiology. Sex Transm Infect 78:7–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garnett GP (2008) The transmission dynamics of sexually transmitted infections. In: Holmes KK, Sparling PF, Stamm WE, Piot P, Wasserheit JN, Corey L, Cohen MS, Watts DH (eds) Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Ch. 3. McGraw-Hill, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Geisler WM, Wang C, Morrison SG, Black CM, Bandea CI, Hook EW, III (2008) The natural history of untreated Chlamydia trachomatis infection in the interval between screening and returning for treatment. Sex Transm Dis 35:119–123

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gift TL, Gaydos CA, Kent CK, Marrazzo JM, Rietmeijer CA, Schillinger JA, Dunne EF (2008) The program cost and cost-effectiveness of screening men for Chlamydia to prevent pelvic inflammatory disease in women. Sex Transm Dis 35:S66–S75

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Golden MR, Hogben M, Handsfield HH, St Lawrence JS, Potterat JJ, Holmes KK (2003) Partner notification for HIV and STD in the United States: low coverage for gonorrhea, chlamydial infection, and HIV. Sex Transm Dis 30:490–496

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Golden MR, Whittington WL, Handsfield HH, Hughes JP, Stamm WE, Hogben M, Clark A, Malinski C, Helmers JR, Thomas KK, Holmes KK (2005) Effect of expedited treatment of sex partners on recurrent or persistent gonorrhea or chlamydial infection. N Engl J Med 352:676–685

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gorgos L, Fine D, Marrazzo J (2008) Chlamydia positivity in American Indian/Alaska Native women screened in family planning clinics, 1997–2004. Sex Transm Dis 35:753–757

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haggerty CL, Schulz R, Ness RB (2003) Lower quality of life among women with chronic pelvic pain after pelvic inflammatory disease. Obstet Gynecol 102:934–939

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hiltunen-Back E, Haikala O, Kautiainen H, Ruutu P, Paavonen J, Reunala T (2003) Nationwide increase of Chlamydia trachomatis infection in Finland: highest rise among adolescent women and men. Sex Transm Dis 30:737–741

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hodge JG, Jr., Pulver A, Hogben M, Bhattacharya D, Brown EF (2008) Expedited partner therapy for sexually transmitted diseases: assessing the legal environment. Am J Public Health 98:238–243

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hogben M (2007) Partner notification for sexually transmitted diseases. Clin Infect Dis 44 Suppl 3:S160–S174

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Hogben M, Brewer DD, Golden MR (2007) Partner notification and management intervention. In: Aral SO, Douglas JM, Lipshutz JA (eds) Behavioral Interventions for Prevention and Control of Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Ch. 7. Springer, New York, 170–189

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hull MG, Glazener CM, Kelly NJ, Conway DI, Foster PA, Hinton RA, Colson C, Lambert PA, Watt EM, Desai KM (1985) Population study of causes, treatment and outcome of infertility. Br Med J 291:1693–1697

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson L, Westrom L (1969) Objectivized diagnosis of acute pelvic inflammatory disease. Diagnostic and prognostic value of routine laparoscopy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 105:1088–1098

    Google Scholar 

  • Joesoef MR, Mosure DJ (2006) Prevalence trends in chlamydial infections among young women entering the national job training program, 1998–2004. Sex Transm Dis 33:571–575

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson AM, Mercer CH, Erens B, Copas AJ, McManus S, Wellings K, Fenton KA, Korovessis C, Macdowall W, Nanchahal K, Purdon S, Field J (2001) Sexual behaviour in Britain: partnerships, practices, and HIV risk behaviours. Lancet 358:1835–1842

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kamwendo F, Forslin L, Bodin L, Danielsson D (1998) Programmes to reduce pelvic inflammatory disease––the Swedish experience. Lancet 351 Suppl 3:25–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kamwendo F, Forslin L, Bodin L, Danielsson D (2000) Epidemiology of ectopic pregnancy during a 28 year period and the role of pelvic inflammatory disease. Sex Transm Infect 76:28–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katz BP, Danos CS, Quinn TS, Caine V, Jones RB (1988) Efficiency and cost-effectiveness of field follow-up for patients with Chlamydia trachomatis infection in a sexually transmitted diseases clinic. Sex Transm Dis 15:11–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelley SS, Borawski EA, Flocke SA, Keen KJ (2003) The role of sequential and concurrent sexual relationships in the risk of sexually transmitted diseases among adolescents. J Adolesc Health 32:296–305

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kissinger P, Mohammed H, Richardson-Alston G, Leichliter JS, Taylor SN, Martin DH, Farley TA (2005) Patient-delivered partner treatment for male urethritis: a randomized, controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 41:623–629

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kissinger P, Schmidt N, Mohammed H, Leichliter JS, Gift TL, Meadors B, Sanders C, Farley TA (2006) Patient-delivered partner treatment for Trichomonas vaginalis infection: a randomized controlled trial. Sex Transm Dis 33:445–450

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klovstad H, Aavitsland P (2009) Chlamydia trachomatis infections in Norway, 1986 to 2006, surveillance data. Sex Transm Dis 36:17–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korenromp EL, Sudaryo MK, de Vlas SJ, Gray RH, Sewankambo NK, Serwadda D, Wawer MJ, Habbema JD (2002) What proportion of episodes of gonorrhoea and chlamydia becomes symptomatic? Int J STD AIDS 13:91–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kretzschmar M, van Duynhoven YT, Severijnen AJ (1996) Modeling prevention strategies for gonorrhea and chlamydia using stochastic network simulations. Am J Epidemiol 144: 306–317

    Google Scholar 

  • Kretzschmar M, Welte R, van den HA, Postma MJ (2001) Comparative model-based analysis of screening programs for Chlamydia trachomatis infections. Am J Epidemiol 153:90–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • La Montagne DS, Patrick LE, Fine DN, Marrazzo JM (2004) Re-evaluating selective screening criteria for chlamydial infection among women in the U S Pacific Northwest. Sex Transm Dis 31:283–289

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laumann EO (1994) The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL

    Google Scholar 

  • Laumann EO, Yoosik Y (1999) Racial/ethnic group differences in the prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases in the United States: A network explanation. Sex Transm Dis 26:250–261

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Low, N(2004) Current status of chlamydia screening in Europe. Eurosurveillance 8(41), 1–4

    Google Scholar 

  • Low N (2007) Screening programmes for chlamydial infection: when will we ever learn? Brit Med J 334:725–728

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Low N (2008) Caution: chlamydia surveillance data ahead. Sex Transm Infect 84:80–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Low N, Egger M, Sterne JA, Harbord RM, Ibrahim F, Lindblom B, Herrmann B (2006) Incidence of severe reproductive tract complications associated with diagnosed genital chlamydial infection: the Uppsala Women's Cohort Study. Sex Transm Infect 82:212–218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Low N, McCarthy A, Macleod J, Salisbury C, Campbell R, Roberts TE, Horner P, Skidmore S, Sterne JA, Sanford E, Ibrahim F, Holloway A, Patel R, Barton PM, Robinson SM, Mills N, Graham A, Herring A, Caul EO, Davey SG, Hobbs FD, Ross JD, Egger M (2007) Epidemiological, social, diagnostic and economic evaluation of population screening for genital chlamydial infection. Health Technol Assess 11:iii-xii, 1

    Google Scholar 

  • Macaluso M, Wright-Schnapp TJ, Chandra A, Johnson R, Satterwhite CL, Pulver A, Berman SM, Wang RY, Farr SL, Pollack LA (2008) A public health focus on infertility prevention, detection, and management. Fertil Steril

    Google Scholar 

  • Makinen J, Rantala M, Vanha-Kamppa O (1998) A link between the epidemic of ectopic pregnancy and the "baby-boom" cohort. Am J Epidemiol 148:369–374

    Google Scholar 

  • Markos A (2008) Patient-delivered partner medication: the antagonism of clinical standards and good medical practice. Int J STD AIDS 19:283–284

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mathias SD, Kuppermann M, Liberman RF, Lipschutz RC, Steege JF (1996) Chronic pelvic pain: prevalence, health-related quality of life, and economic correlates. Obstet Gynecol 87:321–327

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mertz KJ, Ransom RL, St Louis ME, Groseclose SL, Hadgu A, Levine WC, Hayman C (2001) Prevalence of genital chlamydial infection in young women entering a national job training program, 1990–1997. Am J Public Health 91:1287–1290

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller WC (2008) Epidemiology of chlamydial infection: are we losing ground? Sex Transm Infect 84:82–86

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller WC, Ford CA, Morris M, Handcock MS, Schmitz JL, Hobbs MM, Cohen MS, Harris KM, Udry JR (2004) Prevalence of chlamydial and gonococcal infections among young adults in the United States. JAMA 291:2229–2236

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morre SA, van den Brule AJ, Rozendaal L, Boeke AJ, Voorhorst FJ, de Blok S, Meijer CJ (2002) The natural course of asymptomatic Chlamydia trachomatis infections: 45% clearance and no development of clinical PID after one-year follow-up. Int J STD AIDS 13:Suppl-8

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris M, Goodreau S, Moody J (2008) Sexual networks, concurrency, and STD/HIV. In: Holmes KK, Sparling PF, Stamm WE, Piot P, Wasserheit JN, Corey L, Cohen MS, Watts DH (eds) Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Ch. 7. McGraw-Hill, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Mosher WD, Chandra A, Jones J (2005) Sexual behavior and selected health measures: Men and women 15–44 years of age, United States, 2002. Advance data from vital and health statistics; no 362. National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD

    Google Scholar 

  • National Chlamydia Screening Programme (2008) NCSP: Five years. Annual report of the National Chlamydia Screening Programme in England 2007/08. Health Protection Agency, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson HD, Helfand M (2001) Screening for chlamydial infection. Am J Prev Med 20(suppl 3):95–107

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ness RB, Soper DE, Holley RL, Peipert J, Randall H, Sweet RL, Sondheimer SJ, Hendrix SL, Amortegui A, Trucco G, Songer T, Lave JR, Hillier SL, Bass DC, Kelsey SF (2002) Effectiveness of inpatient and outpatient treatment strategies for women with pelvic inflammatory disease: results from the Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Evaluation and Clinical Health (PEACH) Randomized Trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol 186:929–937

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Op de Coul E , van den Broek IVF, Kretzschmar M (2007) Planned evaluation of an internet-based chlamydia screening implementation in the Netherlands. 17th ISSTDR 10th IUSTI World Congress, 393

    Google Scholar 

  • Paavonen J, Kousa M, Saikku P, Vartiainen E, Kanerva L, Laussus A (1980) Treatment of nongonococcal urethritis with trimethoprim-sulphadiazine and with placebo: A double-blind partner-controlled study. Br J Vener Dis 56:101–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Paavonen J, Westrom L, Eschenbach D (2008) Pelvic Inflammatory Disease. In: Holmes KK, Sparling PF, Stamm WE, Piot P, Wasserheit JN, Corey L, Cohen MS, Watts DH (eds) Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Ch. 56. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1017–1050

    Google Scholar 

  • Quinn TC, Gaydos C, Shepherd M, Bobo L, Hook EW, III, Viscidi R, Rompalo A (1996) Epidemiologic and microbiologic correlates of Chlamydia trachomatis infection in sexual partnerships. JAMA 276:1737–1742

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rahm VA, Belsheim J, Gleerup A, Gnarpe H, Rosen G (1986) Asymptomatic carriage of Chlamydia trachomatis: a study of 109 girls. Eur J STD AIDS 3:91–94

    Google Scholar 

  • Regan DG, Wilson DP, Hocking JS (2008) Coverage is the key for effective screening of Chlamydia trachomatis in Australia. J Infect Dis 198:349–358

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rekart ML, Brunham RC (2008) Epidemiology of chlamydial infection: are we losing ground? Sex Transm Infect 84:87–91

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts TE, Robinson S, Barton PM, Bryan S, McCarthy A, Macleod J, Egger M, Low N (2007) Cost effectiveness of home based population screening for Chlamydia trachomatis in the UK: economic evaluation of chlamydia screening studies (ClaSS) project. Brit Med J 335:291

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schachter J, Stephens RS (2008) Biology of Chlamydia trachomatis. In: Holmes KK, Sparling PF, Stamm WE, Piot P, Wasserheit JN, Corey L, Cohen MS, Watts DH (eds) Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Ch. 31. McGraw-Hill, New York,

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt L, Munster K, Helm P (1995) Infertility and the seeking of infertility treatment in a representative population. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 102:978–984

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scholes D, Stergachis A, Heidrich FE, Andrilla H, Holmes KK, Stamm WE (1996) Prevention of pelvic inflammatory disease by screening for cervical chlamydial infection. N Engl J Med 334:1362–1366

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simms I, Stephenson JM, Mallinson H, Peeling RW, Thomas K, Gokhale R, Rogers PA, Hay P, Oakeshott P, Hopwood J, Birley H, Hernon M (2006) Risk factors associated with pelvic inflammatory disease. Sex Transm Infect 82:452–457

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simms I, Warburton F, Westrom L (2003) Diagnosis of pelvic inflammatory disease: time for a rethink. Sex Transm Infect 79:491–494

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stamm WE (2008) Lymphogranuloma venereum. In: Holmes KK, Sparling PF, Stamm WE, Piot P, Wasserheit JN, Corey L, Cohen MS, Watts DH (eds) Sexually Transmitted Diseases. McGraw-Hill, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stamm WE, Guinan ME, Johnson C (1984) Effect of treatment regimens for Neisseria gonorrhoeae on simultaneous infection with Chlamydia trachomatis. N Engl J Med 310:545–549

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stephen EH, Chandra A (2006) Declining estimates of infertility in the United States: 1982–2002. Fertil Steril 86:516–523

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sutton MY, Sternberg M, Zaidi A, St Louis ME, Markowitz LE (2005) Trends in pelvic inflammatory disease hospital discharges and ambulatory visits, United States, 1985–2001. Sex Transm Dis 32:778–784

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trelle S, Shang A, Nartey L, Cassell JA, Low N (2007) Improved effectiveness of partner notification for patients with sexually transmitted infections: systematic review. Brit Med J 334:354

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner KM, Adams EJ, Gay N, Ghani AC, Mercer C, Edmunds WJ (2006a) Developing a realistic sexual network model of chlamydia transmission in Britain. Theor Biol Med Model 3:3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner KM, Adams EJ, LaMontagne DS, Emmett L, Baster K, Edmunds WJ (2006b) Modelling the effectiveness of chlamydia screening in England. Sex Transm Infect 82:496–502

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Bergen J, Gotz HM, Richardus JH, Hoebe CJ, Broer J, Coenen AJ, PILOT CT study group (2005) Prevalence of urogenital Chlamydia trachomatis increases significantly with level of urbanisation and suggests targeted screening approaches: results from the first national population based study in the Netherlands. Sex Transm Infect

    MATH  Google Scholar 

  • Velicko I, Kuhlmann-Berenzon S, Blaxhult A (2007) Reasons for the sharp increase of genital chlamydia infections reported in the first months of 2007 in Sweden. Euro Surveill 12:E5–E6

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace LA, Scoular A, Hart G, Reid M, Wilson P, Goldberg DJ (2008) What is the excess risk of infertility in women after genital chlamydia infection? A systematic review of the evidence. Sex Transm Infect 84:171–175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wasserheit JN, Aral SO (1996) The dynamic topology of sexually transmitted disease epidemics: implications for prevention strategies. J Infect Dis 174 Suppl 2:S201–S213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wellings K, Collumbien M, Slaymaker E, Singh S, Hodges Z, Patel D, Bajos N (2006) Sexual behaviour in context: a global perspective. Lancet 368:1706–1728

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Welte R, Kretzschmar M, Leidl R, van den Hoek A, Jager JC, Postma MJ (2000) Cost-effectiveness of screening programs for Chlamydia trachomatis: a population-based dynamic approach. Sex Transm Dis 27:518–529

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westrom L (1975) Effect of acute pelvic inflammatory disease on fertility. Am J Obstet Gynecol 121:707–713

    Google Scholar 

  • Westrom L, Joesoef R, Reynolds G, Hadgu A, Thompson SE (1992) Pelvic inflammatory disease and fertility: A cohort study of 1,844 women with laparoscopically verified disease and 657 women with normal laparoscopy. Sex Transm Dis 19:185–192

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, C (2008) Government to press trusts to meet screening targets for chlamydia. Brit Med J 336:299

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiesenfeld HC, Cates W, Jr. (2008) Sexually transmitted diseases and infertility. In: Holmes KK, Sparling PF, Stamm WE, Piot P, Wasserheit JN, Corey L, Cohen MS, Watts DH (eds) Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Ch. 99. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1493–1510

    Google Scholar 

  • Zane SB, Kieke BA, Jr., Kendrick JS, Bruce C (2002) Surveillance in a time of changing health care practices: estimating ectopic pregnancy incidence in the United States. Matern Child Health J 6:227–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA

    Robert E. Johnson & Stuart M. Berman

Authors
  1. Robert E. Johnson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stuart M. Berman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Robert E. Johnson .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Fak. Gesundheitswissenschaften, Universität Bielefeld, Universitätsstr. 25, Bielefeld, 33615, Germany

    Alexander Krämer

  2. University Medical Center Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, Utrecht, 3584 CX, Netherlands

    Mirjam Kretzschmar

  3. Manglieu, 63270, France

    Klaus Krickeberg

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Johnson, R.E., Berman, S.M. (2009). Sexual Transmission: Chlamydia trachomatis . In: Krämer, A., Kretzschmar, M., Krickeberg, K. (eds) Modern Infectious Disease Epidemiology. Statistics for Biology and Health. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-93835-6_20

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation