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The Rocky Mountain Arsenal: From Environmental Catastrophe to Urban Wildlife Refuge

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Wildlife Ecotoxicology

Part of the book series: Emerging Topics in Ecotoxicology ((ETEP,volume 3))

Abstract

In 1942, the US Army purchased 70 km2 near Denver, Colorado, to construct the Rocky Mountain Arsenal, where they manufactured chemical and incendiary weapons (mustard, lewisite, napalm) in support of the war effort. After World War II, Shell Oil and its predecessors manufactured pesticides, insecticides, and herbicides at the Arsenal, and the Army manufactured and then decommissioned Sarin (GB) nerve agent. The industrial manufacturing was concentrated near the center of the site, with many square kilometers of undeveloped land providing a buffer from urban Denver. Millions of liters of liquid wastes, including cyclodiene pesticides, such as dieldrin, aldrin, and endrin, were disposed of in open basins, pits, and trenches on the site. Cyclodiene pesticides impact the central nervous system of exposed biota, causing disorientation, emaciation, and eventually death. Thousands of wildlife mortalities were documented at the site, including an estimate of 20,000 duck deaths over a 10-year period in the 1950s, and over 1,800 waterfowl deaths in one basin alone between 1981 and 1987. After manufacturing ceased in the 1980s, the Army, Shell, the US Environmental Protection Agency, and the State of Colorado endeavored to address the contamination and the Arsenal’s future land use. In 1992, the USA passed the Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge Act to create wildlife habitat from uncontaminated and remediated areas and reduce risk of exposure to humans. Many aspects of the cleanup were based on pesticide risks to wildlife, and the parties rarely reached agreement on cleanup thresholds and the amount of area requiring remediation. Ultimately, in 2010, after nearly 30 years of investigation and cleanup efforts and over $2 billion, “significant environmental cleanup” was completed. Millions of metric tons of toxic sludges and soils had been placed in hazardous waste landfills, and millions of metric tons more were buried in place and capped. The refuge now comprises approximately 6,000 ha, roughly the size of Manhattan. The cleanup process was contentious, resulting in multiple lawsuits, which is not a model that the authors recommend. Although contamination at the Arsenal likely is still present and should continue to be evaluated, the refuge will be an important protected oasis of wildlife habitat in the midst of the Denver urban sprawl.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Edson Ecosystems LLC, Boulder, CO, 80302, USA

    Jeffrey T. Edson

  2. Stratus Consulting Inc., Boulder, CO, 80302, USA

    James V. Holmes

  3. Environment Canada, Science and Technology Branch, Pacific Wildlife Research Centre, Delta, BC, V4K 3N2, Canada

    John E. Elliott & Christine A. Bishop

Authors
  1. Jeffrey T. Edson
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  2. James V. Holmes
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  3. John E. Elliott
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  4. Christine A. Bishop
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to James V. Holmes .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Pacific Wildlife Research Centre, Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 5421 Robertson Road, Delta, V4K 3N2, British Columbia, Canada

    John E. Elliott

  2. Pacific Wildlife Research Centre, Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 5421 Robertson Road, Delta, V4K 3N2, British Columbia, Canada

    Christine A. Bishop

  3. Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, S7N 5E2, Saskatchewan, Canada

    Christy A. Morrissey

Additional information

About the Authors

Jeff Edson was the Rocky Mountain Arsenal case manager for CDPHE from 1984 to 2008. He participated in all phases of interim response, remedial investigation, risk assessment, remedy selection, and natural resource damage assessment at the site. Mr. Edson is now a principal at Edson Ecosystems LLC in Boulder, Colorado.

Jamie Holmes is a managing scientist at Stratus Consulting in Boulder, Colorado. Mr. Holmes managed the natural resource damage assessment at the Arsenal for Stratus Consulting, working on behalf of the Colorado Attorney General’s Office.

John Elliott is a researcher with Environment Canada and an adjunct professor at the University of British Columbia and Simon Fraser University. His research interests include the exposure and effects of persistent contaminants on avian and mammalian top predators and many toxicological and ecological interfaces.

Christine Bishop is a Research Scientist with Environment Canada and an adjunct professor at Simon Fraser University and at University of British Columbia. Her research focuses on the effects of multiple stressors on amphibian, reptilian and avian populations and the recovery of Species at Risk.

Appendix

Appendix

Contaminant concentrations in tissues of selected specimens collected at the arsenal between 1981 and 2005

Species

Sample date

Substrate analyzed

Contaminant

Concentration (μg/g)

Avocet, American (Recurvirostra americana)

1999

Egg

Dieldrin

2.34

   

Endrin

0.189

   

DDE

0.478

Blackbird, Brewers (Euphagus cyanocephalus)

1982

Brain

Dieldrin

7.9

   

DDE

4.1

   

DDD

0.2

   

DDT

0.1

   

Oxychlordane

0.28

   

Nonachlor

0.18

 

1982

Brain

Dieldrin

12

   

DDE

2.5

   

Mercury

0.18

   

Oxychlordane

0.27

   

Nonachlor

0.4

   

PCB

0.52

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

1.1

 

1999

Brain

Dieldrin

DDE

12

0.393

  

Liver

Dieldrin

Endrin

DDE

9.3

0.0243

0.336

Blackbird, Red-winged (Agelaius phoeniceus)

2003

Brain

Dieldrin

Endrin

DDE

7.0468

0.221

1.3272

Coot, American (Fulica Americana)

1988

Dressed carcass

Aldrin

0.0658

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Mercury

0.137

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

0.101

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

0.142

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Endrin

0.135

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

0.359

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Mercury

0.18

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDT

0.569

 

c. 1989

Liver (n = 9)

Mercury

Dieldrin

0.3–1.77

<0.124–0.693

 

c. 1989

Muscle (n = 9)

Mercury

<0.05–0.339

Cormorant, Double-crested (Phalacrocorax auritus)

2001

Kidney

Arsenic

Mercury

0.0362

0.42

Dove, Mourning (Zenaida macroura)

1981

Breast

p-Chlorophenylmethyl sulfone

Dieldrin

Endrin

0.22

0.24

0.03

 

1981

Breast

Dieldrin

Endrin

0.22

0.03

 

1981

Breast

DDE

0.03

 

1981

Breast

p-Chlorophenylmethyl sulfone

0.22

 

1981

Breast

p-Chlorophenylmethyl sulfone

Endrin

Dieldrin

0.53

3.4

0.3

 

1981

Breast

p-Chlorophenylmethyl sulfone

Dieldrin

Endrin

2.53

9.96

1.21

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

0.0766

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Isodrin

0.151

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Endrin

0.352

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDT

0.308

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Mercury

0.4

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

0.455

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Endrin

1.3

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Aldrin

1.3

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

32

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

14

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Arsenic

2.63

 

c. 1989

Carcass

Aldrin

1.83

   

Dieldrin

56.3

   

Endrin

3.44

 

c. 1989

Liver

Dieldrin

7.37

   

Endrin

3.74

 

1994

Brain

Endrin

2.4

  

Liver

Dieldrin

1.61

   

Endrin

3.1

 

1999

Brain

Dieldrin

0.187

   

Endrin

4.4

   

Isodrin

1.6

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.71

   

Endrin

12

   

Isodrin

4

 

1999

Brain

Dieldrin

0.626

   

Endrin

0.91

  

Liver

Dieldrin

3.7

   

Endrin

4.9

 

1999

Liver

Dieldrin

0.12

 

2000

Liver

Dieldrin

1.2

   

Endrin

0.0882

   

Heptachlor epoxide

0.0559

   

trans-Chlordane

0.0882

 

2001

Liver

Dieldrin

2.17

 

2001

Brain

Dieldrin

0.939

  

Liver

Dieldrin

1.9

   

Endrin

0.185

Dove, Rock (Columba livia)

1999

Brain

Dieldrin

17

   

Endrin

0.182

Eagle, Bald (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)

1988

Muscle

Mercury

0.0542

 

1988

Brain

Dieldrin

0.112

 

1988

Liver

DDT

0.135

 

1988

Liver

Mercury

0.153

 

1988

Brain

DDE

0.4

 

1988

Liver

DDE

0.404

 

1988

Muscle

DDE

1.7

Eagle, Golden (Aquila chrysaetos)

1988

Brain

Mercury

0.0969

 

1988

Liver

DDE

0.124

 

1988

Muscle

Mercury

0.14

 

1988

Liver

Mercury

0.304

 

1988

Muscle

DDE

0.639

 

c. 1989

Liver

Mercury

0.216

   

Dieldrin

0.221

 

c. 1989

Brain

Mercury

0.257

Finch, House (Carpodacus mexicanus)

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

15

Goose, Canada (Branta canadensis)

1999

Liver

Dieldrin

0.205

 

2001

Liver

Dieldrin

0.116

Grackle, Common (Quiscalus quiscula)

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

9.83

 

2001

Brain

Dieldrin

15

   

DDE

3.11

  

Liver

Dieldrin

8.1

   

DDE

1.4

 

2001

Liver

Dieldrin

0.225

   

DDE

0.372

 

2001

Brain

Dieldrin

1.57

   

DDE

3.83

  

Liver

Dieldrin

1.04

   

DDE

2.7

 

2003

Brain

Dieldrin

0.0607

   

DDE

0.244

Grebe, Eared (Podiceps nigricollis)

1982

Brain

Dieldrin

0.18

   

Oxychlordane

0.36

   

Nonachlor

0.19

   

PCB

5.9

Harrier, Northern (Circus cyaneus)

c. 1989

Egg

Dieldrin

0.303

 

c. 1989

Egg

Dieldrin

0.676

Hawk, Cooper’s (Accipiter cooperii)

2004

Brain

cis-Chlordane

0.894

   

Dieldrin

0.2312

   

Heptachlor epoxide

0.0854

   

DDE

2.6124

Hawk, Ferruginous (Buteo regalis)

1987

Brain

Dieldrin

7.7

   

DDE

1.8

   

DDT

5.5

 

1987

Brain

Dieldrin

10

   

DDE

2.3

 

1987

Brain

DDE

0.92

   

DDT

2.8

 

1988

Whole body

Mercury

0.076

 

1988

Whole body

DDE

0.169

 

1988

Whole body

Endrin

0.233

 

1988

Whole body

Dieldrin

11

 

c. 1989

Liver

Mercury (n = 1)

0.293

   

Dieldrin (n = 5)

0.263–4.79

Hawk, Ferruginous (cont.)

c. 1989

Brain

Mercury (n = 1)

0.152

   

Dieldrin (n = 5)

<0.238–9.98

Hawk, Red-tailed (Buteo jamaicensis)

1982

Brain

Dieldrin

3.7

   

Endrin

0.37

 

1982

Brain

Dieldrin

4.2

 

1987

Brain

Dieldrin

9.5

   

DDE

1.1

   

DDT

3.5

 

1987

Brain

DDT

6.9

   

DDE

2.3

   

Arsenic

1.2

   

Endrin

0.96

 

1988

Brain

Dieldrin

9.4

 

1988

Liver

Mercury

0.0489

 

1988

Liver

Endrin

0.125

 

1988

Liver

DDE

0.145

 

1988

Liver

Isodrin

0.206

 

c. 1989

Liver

Mercury (n = 1)

0.345

   

Dieldrin (n = 3)

0.520–6.59

   

DDE (n = 3)

<0.313–0.759

 

c. 1989

Brain

Mercury (n = 1)

0.093

   

Dieldrin (n = 3)

<0.751–9.44

Hawk, Sharp-shinned (Accipiter striatus)

1994

Brain

Dieldrin

0.888

   

DDE

4.92

Heron, Great Blue (Ardea Herodias)

1982

Brain

Dieldrin

11

   

Endrin

0.22

   

DDE

15

   

DDD

0.42

   

Oxychlordane

0.66

   

cis-Chlordane

0.57

   

PCB

15

 

2003

Brain

cis-Chlordane

0.863

   

Dieldrin

7.035

   

Endrin

0.124

   

DDE

1.99

  

Liver

cis-Chlordane

0.109

   

Dieldrin

6.98

   

Endrin

0.0903

   

DDE

2.673

  

Kidney

Dieldrin

4.51

   

Endrin

0.0682

   

DDE

1.75

Kestrel, American (Falco sparverius)

1988

Dressed carcass

DDT

0.14

 

1988

Egg

DDE

0.351

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

1.7

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

0.401

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDT

0.446

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

0.811

 

1988

Egg

DDT

0.62

 

1988

Egg

Dieldrin

1.7

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

2.2

 

1988

Egg

DDE

5.3

 

1988

Egg

Dieldrin

5.6

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

3.7

 

c. 1989

Egg

Mercury (n = 34)

<0.05–0.405

   

Dieldrin (n = 33)

<0.031–3.63

   

DDE (n = 1)

1.25

 

1993

Brain

Dieldrin

1.5

 

1993

Brain

Dieldrin

12

 

1993

Brain

Dieldrin

4

 

1993

Brain

Dieldrin

12

 

1994

Brain

Dieldrin

0.36

   

DDE

0.76

 

1995

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

2.32

  

Liver

Dieldrin

6.37

  

Viscera

Dieldrin

0.92

 

1995

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

2.46

  

Liver

Dieldrin

3.05

  

Viscera

Dieldrin

0.94

 

1995

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

2.26

  

Liver

Dieldrin

1.54

  

Viscera

Dieldrin

0.77

 

1995

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

0.021

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.279

  

Brain

Dieldrin

<0.065

  

Viscera

Dieldrin

0.03

 

1995

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

0.127

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.155

  

Brain

Dieldrin

<0.143

  

Viscera

Dieldrin

0.049

 

1995

Liver

Dieldrin

1.7

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

4.4

 

1999

Egg

DDE

0.0579

 

1999

Brain

Dieldrin

2.6

   

DDE

0.374

  

Liver

Dieldrin

7.9

   

DDE

0.575

 

2001

Liver

Dieldrin

0.68

 

2002

Brain

Dieldrin

0.9191

 

2003

Brain

Dieldrin

0.12

 

2003

Brain

Dieldrin

0.11

 

2003

Brain

Dieldrin

0.12

 

2005

Brain

Dieldrin

0.073

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.6686

   

Dieldrin

0.1243

 

2005

Brain

Dieldrin

4.3127

   

DDE

4.2608

   

DDT

0.7279

  

Liver

Dieldrin

5.1005

   

DDE

4.0295

 

2005

Brain

Dieldrin

0.1908

   

DDE

0.293

  

Liver

Dieldrin

1.3534

   

DDE

0.9042

   

DDT

0.1036

Killdeer (Charadrius vociferous)

1988

Dressed carcass

Endrin

0.0714

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Endrin

0.0975

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Mercury

0.109

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Mercury

0.305

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDT

1

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDT

0.955

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

1.1

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

7

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

4.7

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

6.6

 

1994

Liver

Dieldrin

0.649

   

DDE

0.167

 

2001

Brain

α-Chlordane

0.29

   

Dieldrin

3.6

   

Endrin

1.3

   

DDE

0.61

   

DDT

0.151

  

Kidney

Arsenic

0.13

   

Mercury

0.41

  

Liver

Endrin

0.387

   

γ-Chlordane

0.128

   

Isodrin

0.172

   

DDT

0.31

 

2004

Brain

cis-Chlordane

0.1153

   

Dieldrin

7.6053

   

Endrin

0.0836

   

Heptachlor epoxide

0.0706

 

2004

Brain

Dieldrin

5.1611

   

DDE

1.4652

Kingbird, Eastern (Tyrannus tyrannus)

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

7.34

 

1999

Brain

DDE

0.184

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.609

   

DDE

0.262

 

2005

Liver

Dieldrin

0.0646

Kingbird, Western (Tyrannus verticalis)

1994

Brain

Dieldrin

1.78

   

DDE

1.25

 

1994

Liver

Dieldrin

6.43

   

DDE

0.25

 

1995

Liver

Dieldrin

15.1

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

14.1

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

4.32

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

10.1

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

8.83

 

2001

Liver

Dieldrin

0.25

Magpie, Black-billed (Pica pica)

1982

Brain

Dieldrin

DDE

5.3

5.5

   

DDT

0.28

   

PCB

0.55

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDT

0.235

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

2.7

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

5.9

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

0.47

 

1996

Brain

Dieldrin

9.6

 

1996

Brain

Dieldrin

1.1

 

1996

Brain

Dieldrin

3.4

 

1996

Brain

Dieldrin

6.1

 

1997

Brain

Dieldrin

13

 

1997

Brain

Dieldrin

1.8

 

1997

Brain

Dieldrin

3.5

 

1997

Brain

Dieldrin

2.3

 

1997

Brain

Dieldrin

1.6

 

1997

Brain

Dieldrin

2.2

 

1997

Brain

Dieldrin

5.3

 

1997

Brain

Dieldrin

2.7

 

1997

Brain

Dieldrin

3.4

 

1997

Brain

Dieldrin

2.5

 

1997

Brain

Dieldrin

14

 

1999

Brain

DDE

0.393

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.66

   

DDE

1.3

 

1999

Liver

Dieldrin

0.263

   

DDE

0.109

 

2000

Brain

Dieldrin

0.252

   

DDE

0.137

  

Liver

Dieldrin

3.3

   

DDE

0.308

 

2000

Brain

Dieldrin

1.1

   

DDE

0.36

  

Liver

Dieldrin

2.2

   

DDE

0.57

 

2001

Liver

Dieldrin

0.391

   

DDE

0.365

 

2001

Brain

Dieldrin

0.5313

   

DDE

4.52

   

DDT

0.0877

 

2002

Brain

Dieldrin

8.08

   

Endrin

0.1354

   

Heptachlor epoxide

0.3696

   

DDE

1.1568

 

2003

Brain

Dieldrin

0.0646

 

2003

Brain

Dieldrin

0.216

 

2003

Brain

DDE

0.0743

 

2003

Brain

DDE

0.326

 

2003

Brain

Dieldrin

0.28

   

DDE

2.632

 

2003

Brain

Dieldrin

0.0809

   

Dieldrin

0.128

   

DDE

0.448

 

2003

Brain

Dieldrin

0.214

   

DDE

1.1111

 

2003

Brain

Dieldrin

0.0847

   

DDE

1.144

 

2003

Brain

Dieldrin

4.179

   

DDE

0.154

 

2003

Liver

DDE

0.0855

 

2003

Brain

Dieldrin

0.199

   

DDE

0.336

Mallard (Anas platyrhyncos)

1981

Breast/leg

DDE

0.21

 

1981

Breast/leg

Dieldrin

0.08

   

Endrin

0.03

   

DDE

0.1

   

DDT

0.03

 

1981

Breast/leg

Dieldrin

0.97

   

Endrin

0.03

   

DDT

0.03

 

1981

Breast/leg

Dieldrin

0.06

   

DDE

0.09

   

DDT

0.02

 

1981

Breast/leg

Dieldrin

0.03

 

1981

Breast/leg

Dieldrin

0.04

   

Endrin

0.03

   

DDE

0.03

   

DDT

0.02

 

1981

Breast/leg

Aldrin

0.03

   

Dieldrin

0.88

   

Endrin

0.04

   

DDT

0.02

 

1981

Breast/leg

Dieldrin

0.68

   

DDT

0.02

 

1981

Breast/leg

Aldrin

0.02

   

Dieldrin

0.42

   

Endrin

0.02

   

DDT

0.02

 

1981

Breast/leg

Dieldrin

0.28

   

Endrin

0.02

   

DDT

0.02

 

1982

Brain

Endrin

1.3

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Mercury

0.0681

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Mercury

0.143

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Mercury

0.242

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Aldrin

0.0934

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

0.146

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Endrin

0.104

 

1988

Liver

Mercury

0.353

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

0.183

 

1988

Liver

Mercury

0.679

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

0.404

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

1.1

 

1988

Liver

Dieldrin

0.68

 

1988

Liver

DDE

0.633

 

1988

Liver

Dieldrin

1.5

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

3.8

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

4.2

 

c. 1989

Egg (n = 2)

Mercury

0.173–0.185

   

Dieldrin

3.0–4.89

   

DDE

0.606–0.919

 

2005

Brain

Dieldrin

0.2191

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.8463

Meadowlark, Western (Sturnella neglecta)

1988

Dressed carcass

Endrin

0.0569

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Endrin

0.103

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

0.122

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Endrin

0.13

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

0.149

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Isodrin

0.177

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

1.6

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

2.1

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

4.4

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

7.15

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

8.35

 

1999

Brain

Dieldrin

0.36

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.481

 

2004

Brain

Dieldrin

0.6746

   

DDE

0.1455

Oriole, Bullock’s (Icterus bullockii)

1982

Brain

Dieldrin

3.4

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

10.4

Owl, Barn (Tyto alba)

1994

Liver

Dieldrin

0.17

   

DDE

0.43

Owl, Burrowing (Athene cunicularia)

1988

Dressed carcass

Endrin

0.0583

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

0.128

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

0.281

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

1

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

0.195

Owl, Great Horned (Bubo virginianus)

1987

Brain

Dieldrin

16

   

Aldrin

1.7

   

DDE

10

   

DDT

1.7

 

1987

Brain

Dieldrin

10

   

DDE

2.2

   

DDT

0.81

 

1987

Brain

Dieldrin

9

   

DDE

1.4

 

1988

Liver

Mercury

0.0581

 

1988

Muscle

Mercury

0.0664

 

1988

Egg

Mercury

0.106

 

1988

Egg

Endrin

0.171

 

1988

Muscle

Isodrin

0.174

 

1988

Egg

DDE

0.951

 

1988

Muscle

DDE

0.667

 

1988

Egg

Dieldrin

6.6

 

c. 1989

Liver

Mercury (n = 2)

<0.05–0.086

   

Dieldrin (n = 4)

0.143–27.7

   

DDE (n = 3)

<0.094–15.5

 

c. 1989

Brain

Dieldrin (n = 3)

<0.175–15.6

   

DDE (n = 3)

<0.529–10.3

 

1994

Brain

Dieldrin

3.2

 

1994

Brain

Dieldrin

0.09

   

DDE

0.18

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.1

   

DDE

0.18

 

1994

Brain

Dieldrin

0.37

   

DDE

0.047

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

2.06

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

0.12

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

0.04

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

0.19

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

10.55

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

8.1

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

0.28

 

2000

Brain

Dieldrin

14

   

Endrin

0.06

   

DDE

0.68

  

Liver

Dieldrin

20

   

Endrin

0.165

   

DDE

1.2

 

2001

Brain

Dieldrin

1.9

   

DDE

0.159

  

Liver

Dieldrin

3.4

   

DDE

0.49

Pheasant, Ring-necked (Phasianus colchicus)

1981

Breast/leg

Dieldrin

0.04

   

Mercury

1.2

 

1981

Breast/leg

Dieldrin

0.16

   

Mercury

0.23

 

1981

Breast/leg

Dieldrin

0.04

 

1981

Breast/leg

Dieldrin

0.02

   

Mercury

0.32

 

1981

Breast/leg

Mercury

0.26

 

1981

Breast/leg

DIMP

0.1

   

Dieldrin

0.06

 

1981

Breast/leg

DIMP

0.1

   

Dieldrin

0.02

 

1981

Breast/leg

p-Chlorophenylmethyl sulfone

0.36

   

DIMP

0.34

   

Dieldrin

2.83

   

Endrin

0.03

 

1988

Liver

DDE

0.812

   

Dieldrin

1.2

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

0.0701

 

1988

Liver

Dieldrin

0.165

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

0.108

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Mercury

0.122

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

0.214

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

0.43

 

1988

Liver

DDE

0.464

 

1988

Liver

DDE

0.81

 

1988

Liver

Dieldrin

1.2

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

4.7

 

1988

Liver

Dieldrin

2.2

 

1988

Liver

Dieldrin

5.9

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

5.9

 

1988**

Liver

DDE

0.368

 

c. 1989

Egg

Dieldrin (n = 11)

<0.031–5.38

   

Endrin (n = 1)

0.143

 

c. 1989

Liver

Dieldrin (n = 6)

<0.018–2.3

   

Endrin (n = 1)

0.091

   

DDE (n = 1)

0.44

Redhead (Aythya americana)

c. 1989

Liver

Mercury (n = 5)

0.08–0.368

   

Aldrin (n = 1)

0.088

   

Dieldrin (n = 5)

0.307–0.747

   

Endrin (n = 1)

0.074

   

DDE (n = 1)

0.156

 

c. 1989

Muscle

Mercury (n = 5)

<0.05–0.071

   

Dieldrin (n = 5)

0.117–0.320

Robin, American (Turdus migratorius)

1988

Dressed carcass

Mercury

0.0623

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDT

0.339

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Endrin

0.98

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDT

0.95

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Endrin

0.97

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

8.3

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

6.5

 

1994

Brain

Dieldrin

1.5

   

DDE

2.42

 

1994

Brain

DDE

4.77

 

1994

Brain

DDE

0.441

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.24

   

DDE

0.438

 

1999

Brain

DDE

14

   

DDT

1.3

  

Liver

Dieldrin

1.4

   

DDE

19

   

DDT

0.53

 

1999

Egg

Dieldrin

2.3

   

DDE

1.8

   

DDT

0.227

 

1999

Egg

Dieldrin

2.9

   

DDE

2.2

   

DDT

0.274

 

1999

Brain

Dieldrin

7.5

   

Endrin

0.386

   

DDE

1.8

   

DDT

0.158

  

Liver

Dieldrin

12

   

Endrin

0.493

   

DDE

2

 

1999

Brain

α-Chlordane

0.0872

   

Endrin

0.0955

   

γ-Chlordane

0.0251

   

DDE

0.196

  

Liver

Dieldrin

12

   

Endrin

0.0792

   

DDE

0.301

 

1999

Liver

Dieldrin

0.549

   

γ-Chlordane

0.0476

   

DDE

0.179

 

1999

Brain

Dieldrin

0.96

   

Endrin

0.0935

   

Heptachlor epoxide

0.0998

   

DDE

1.3

   

DDT

0.295

  

Liver

Dieldrin

1.2

   

Endrin

0.104

   

Heptachlor epoxide

0.116

   

Isodrin

0.0869

   

DDE

1.2

 

1999

Brain

Dieldrin

0.0732

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.365

 

2001

Brain

Dieldrin

210

  

Liver

Dieldrin

34

   

Endrin

0.873

   

DDE

1.3

   

DDT

0.163

 

2003

Liver

Dieldrin

0.332

   

Dieldrin

0.302

 

2003

Liver

Dieldrin

0.17

   

DDE

0.6525

 

2004

Brain

Dieldrin

0.1333

   

DDE

0.964

   

DDT

0.1717

 

2005

Brain

Dieldrin

0.3817

   

DDE

13.688

   

DDT

0.6728

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.3373

   

DDE

16.291

Sora (Porzana carolina)

2001

Kidney

Arsenic

0.849

   

Mercury

4

Sparrow, House (Passer domesticus)

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

9.66

Sparrow, Vesper (Pooecetes gramineus)

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

1.9

 

2000

Brain

Dieldrin

29

  

Liver

Dieldrin

33

Starling, European (Sturnus vulgaris)

1982

Brain

Dieldrin

7.9

   

Endrin

0.18

   

DDE

6.1

 

1982

Brain

Dieldrin

3.3

 

1982

Brain

Dieldrin

5.7

   

DDE

0.51

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Mercury

0.0477

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Endrin

0.394

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

4.3

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

5.9

 

1994

Brain

Dieldrin

8.34

 

1994

Brain

Dieldrin

4.9

   

DDE

0.842

 

1995

Gastrointestinal (GI) tract

DDE

0.0529

   

Dieldrin

0.705

  

Kidney

Mercury

0.453

  

Liver

DDE

0.663

   

Dieldrin

13

 

1995

GI tract

Dieldrin

0.501

   

Endrin

0.0208

 

1995

GI tract

DDE

0.0209

   

Dieldrin

0.96

   

Endrin

0.0323

 

1995

GI tract

DDE

0.0274

   

Dieldrin

0.718

   

Endrin

0.0294

 

1995

GI tract

DDE

0.0224

   

Dieldrin

0.821

   

Endrin

0.037

 

1995

GI tract

Dieldrin

0.0166

 

1995

Liver

Dieldrin

0.0675

 

1995

GI tract

Dieldrin

0.0227

 

1995

GI tract

Dieldrin

0.0152

 

1995

GI tract

DDE

0.0405

   

Dieldrin

0.0724

 

1995

Liver

Dieldrin

0.0803

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

7.38

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

4.1

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

1.66

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

3.77

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

3.72

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

4.58

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

7.6

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

1.86

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

3.01

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

5

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

9.48

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

7

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

5.5

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

2.41

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

5.37

 

1995

Brain

DDE

3.02

   

Dieldrin

24

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

2.17

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

2.57

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

2.57

 

1995

Brain

DDE

1.16

   

Dieldrin

4.7

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

6.99

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

2

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

2.31

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

5.99

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

6.9

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

5.24

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

4.77

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

5.28

 

1995

Brain

DDE

1.08

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

3.03

   

DDE

1.08

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

4.31

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

1.6

 

1995

Brain

Dieldrin

9.2

 

1996

Brain

Dieldrin

1.6

 

1996

Brain

Aldrin

0.886

   

α-Chlordane

0.832

 

1999

Brain

Dieldrin

3.4

   

DDE

0.201

  

Liver

Dieldrin

4.2

   

DDE

0.249

 

1999

Brain

Dieldrin

4.1

  

Liver

Dieldrin

5.4

   

Heptachlor epoxide

0.074

   

Isodrin

0.124

   

trans-Chlordane

0.0653

 

1999

Brain

Dieldrin

6.2

   

DDE

2.4

  

Liver

Dieldrin

4.8

   

DDE

1.7

 

2000

Brain

Dieldrin

50

  

Liver

Dieldrin

12

 

2000

Brain

Dieldrin

16

   

Endrin

0.0646

   

DDE

0.97

  

Liver

Dieldrin

18

   

Endrin

0.106

   

DDE

1.3

 

2000

Brain

Dieldrin

15.25

   

DDE

0.94

  

Liver

Dieldrin

17.6

   

Endrin

0.0993

 

2000

Brain

Dieldrin

13.35

 

2000

Blood

Dieldrin

67.5

 

2000

Brain

Dieldrin

0.143

  

Liver

Dieldrin

1.5

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.438

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.75

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.508

 

2000

Liver

Dieldrin

0.84

 

2000

Liver

Dieldrin

0.285

 

2000

Brain

Dieldrin

0.246

  

Liver

Dieldrin

1.4

 

2001

Brain

Dieldrin

0.167

  

Liver

Dieldrin

4.5

 

2001

Brain

Dieldrin

0.239

  

Liver

Dieldrin

3.4

 

2001

Liver

Dieldrin

0.215

 

2001

Brain

Dieldrin

0.167

  

Liver

Dieldrin

1.1

 

2001

Brain

Dieldrin

0.91

   

DDE

1.5

  

Liver

Dieldrin

5.4

   

DDE

6.9

 

2001

Liver

Dieldrin

0.16

 

2001

Liver

Dieldrin

0.28

 

2001

Liver

Dieldrin

0.161

 

2003

Liver

DDE

1.19

 

2003

Brain

Dieldrin

6.69

   

Endrin

0.0776

   

Heptachlor epoxide

0.0503

   

DDE

1.875

 

2003

Liver

Dieldrin

0.1

 

2003

Brain

DDE

0.062

 

2003

Brain

Dieldrin

1.304

 

2005

Brain

Dieldrin

0.0881

   

DDE

0.1966

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.2838

   

DDE

0.2708

 

2005

Liver

Dieldrin

0.7534

   

DDE

0.0599

 

2005

Liver

Dieldrin

1.3837

   

DDE

0.9832

 

2005

Brain

Dieldrin

13.736

   

DDE

2.5064

  

Liver

Dieldrin

17.978

   

DDE

2.8245

Swallow, Barn (Hirundo rustica)

2000

Brain

DDE

1.5

  

Liver

DDE

2.5

Swallow, Cliff (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota)

2000

Liver

Dieldrin

0.149

 

2001

Liver

Dieldrin

0.68

 

2001

Liver

Dieldrin

0.61

 

2001

Kidney

Arsenic

0.084

   

Mercury

0.13

  

Liver

Dieldrin

0.126

 

2004

Brain

DDE

2.3714

Swallow, Tree (Tachycineta bicolor)

1999

Egg

Dieldrin

0.232

   

DDE

1.71

 

1999

Egg

Dieldrin

0.0984

   

DDE

1

 

2000

Liver

Dieldrin

0.301

   

DDE

0.201

Teal, Blue-winged (Anas discors)

c. 1989

Liver (n = 3)

Mercury

0.371–1.64

   

Dieldrin

0.183–0.281

 

c. 1989

Muscle (n = 3)

Mercury

0.259–0.559

   

Dieldrin

0.09–0.164

 

1988

Dressed carcass

DDE

0.127

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Mercury

0.338

 

1988

Dressed carcass

Dieldrin

0.57

 

1999

Liver

Dieldrin

0.125

Data sources: Thorne (1982), McEwen (1983), McEwen and DeWeese (1984), Environmental Science and Engineering (1989), R.L. Stollar & Associates (1990a, b), USFWS (1996, 2000), USFWS (unpublished data), US Army, Rocky Mountain Arsenal Environmental Database (unpublished data)

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Edson, J.T., Holmes, J.V., Elliott, J.E., Bishop, C.A. (2011). The Rocky Mountain Arsenal: From Environmental Catastrophe to Urban Wildlife Refuge. In: Elliott, J., Bishop, C., Morrissey, C. (eds) Wildlife Ecotoxicology. Emerging Topics in Ecotoxicology, vol 3. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-89432-4_4

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