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Dioxins, Wildlife, and the Forest Industry in British Columbia, Canada

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Wildlife Ecotoxicology

Part of the book series: Emerging Topics in Ecotoxicology ((ETEP,volume 3))

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Abstract

The exposure and effects of wildlife to persistent pollutants from forest industry sources were studied over the period 1986–2008 in British Columbia, Canada. Elevated concentrations of specific polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and furan (PCDD/PCDF) congeners were measured in a variety of aquatic and predatory birds and mustelid mammals, and related to sources including chlorine bleaching of wood pulp and use of chlorophenolic herbicides. Exposure was correlated to biochemical, physiological, and morphological variables in various species, and to reproductive success in great blue herons (Ardea herodias) and bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) at specific study sites impacted by pulp mill effluents. From the late 1980s into the early 1990s, changes to the bleaching process and regulatory restrictions on chlorophenol use produced significant reductions in ambient contamination and wildlife exposure to PCDD/Fs, as well as improvements in physiological responses. My experiences with both the science and the regulatory processes are described, along with a reassessment of the wildlife effects data and some consideration of the lessons that might be learned from this work.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Aroclors are technical mixtures of PCBs manufactured by Monsanto Corporation from the 1930s to the 1970s. Those mixtures of PCB congeners were named according to their chlorine content, e.g. Aroclor 1254 contains 54% chlorine by weight and Aroclor 1260 contains 60%. Quantification of PCBs in environmental samples posed a challenge to analytical chemists for many years. Until analytical standards became widely available in the mid 1980s, chemists used one or two major chromatographic peaks considered representative of the major Aroclor mixtures to estimate PCBs on an Aroclor basis.

  2. 2.

    Chlorophenolic biocides refer to the penta- and tetrachlorophenols widely used in many commercial applications to preserve wood and the U.S. Pacific Northwest and British Columbia to prevent mold and slime formation on lumber stored outside during the wet winters. Chlorophenols are unavoidably contaminated with a range of polychlorinated dioxins and furans; however, certain congeners are considered indicative of chlorophenol sources. See for example: Elliott et al. 1998b, b paper on ospreys for background references.

  3. 3.

    Memo from K. Shikaze, Regional Director, Ontario Region, Conservation and Protection Branch, Environment Canada to P. Higgins, Director General, Environmental Pollution and Protection Division, Environment Canada, Ottawa, March 12, 1986 on the subject “Dioxins – Pulp and Paper Mills”. Attached is a memo from T. Tseng, Investigations of sources of dioxin in pulp and paper mills, dated March 10, 1986.

  4. 4.

    Cost estimates for 96 Canadian pulp and paper mills to become compliant with new effluent regulations were 2.2 billion dollars at an average cost of $ 23.8 million per mill. Costs of meeting PCDD and PCDF regulations were estimated at $500 million for 47 affected mills (Environment Canada, 1990, Cleaning up pollution in the pulp and paper industry: an overview of the federal regulatory strategy. Environmental Protection Branch, Environment Canada, Ottawa, ON).

  5. 5.

    For more details on treatment of pulp mill effluent, consult Biermann (1996). Processes are labeled as primary, secondary, and sometimes, tertiary treatment. Primary treatment, removes solids by allowing them to settle out was widely implemented in the 1950s. Currently, most mills also employee at least a secondary treatment process involving use of oxygen and microorganisms to remove oxygen-consuming materials, which significantly decreases toxicity of the effluent. In Canada the most common secondary steps are aerated stabilization basins and activated sludge. Some mills also have a tertiary process following the secondary treatment normally to reduce odor and color.

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Acknowledgments

I am indebted to the many people who contributed to this work, in particular, Phil Whitehead. I would also like to thank: D. Bennet, G. Bellward, A. Breault, R. Butler, K. Cheng, C. Coker, M. Harris, L. Hart, D. Janz, S, Lee, I. Moul, R. Norstrom, M. Simon, T. Sanderson, T. Sullivan, L Wilson, and H. Won. Useful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript were made by T. Augspurger, M. Gilbertson, and P. Ross. S. Lee assisted with drafting figures.

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  1. Environment Canada, Science and Technology Branch, Pacific Wildlife Research Centre, Delta, BC, V4K 3N2, Canada

    John E. Elliott

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  1. Pacific Wildlife Research Centre, Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 5421 Robertson Road, Delta, V4K 3N2, British Columbia, Canada

    John E. Elliott

  2. Pacific Wildlife Research Centre, Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 5421 Robertson Road, Delta, V4K 3N2, British Columbia, Canada

    Christine A. Bishop

  3. Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, S7N 5E2, Saskatchewan, Canada

    Christy A. Morrissey

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Elliott, J.E. (2011). Dioxins, Wildlife, and the Forest Industry in British Columbia, Canada. In: Elliott, J., Bishop, C., Morrissey, C. (eds) Wildlife Ecotoxicology. Emerging Topics in Ecotoxicology, vol 3. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-89432-4_2

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