Skip to main content

Skin Color Biases: Attractiveness and Halo Effects in the Evaluation of African Americans

  • Chapter
Racism in the 21st Century

Abstract

Since the early days of slavery a bias favoring fair skin has been a significant and discriminatory distinction made by both White and Black Americans. Recent research indicates that African Americans are considered more attractive by others if they have fair skin. Clearly, skin color exerts strong effects on many aspects of African Americans’ lives. Skin color may also affect the beauty and life chances of other non-African American groups since skin color affects perceptions in India, Israel, Korea, Japan, the West Indies, South Africa, Britain, and South America. But, until additional research examining this issue is conducted one cannot be certain that it is true. Hopefully, now that more work is being done examining skin color the public will be made aware of this and additional research examining the impact of skin color in the aforementioned cultures will also be conducted.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Allen, B. P., & Wroble, S. (1975). Attractive people like themselves better than unattractive people-most of the time: Self-descriptions employing the AGT. Paper presented as the Midwestern Psychological Association Convention, Chicago, IL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Azibo, D. (1983). Perceived attractiveness and the Black personality. Western Journal of Black Studies, 7(4), 229–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banks, W. C. (1976). White preference in Blacks: A paradigm in search of a phenomenon. Psychological Bulletin, 83(6), 1179–1186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Banks, W. C., McQuater, G. V., & Ross, J. A. (1979). On the importance of White preference and the comparative difference of Blacks and others: Reply to Williams and Morland. Psychological Bulletin, 86(1), 33–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Tal, D., & Saxe, L. (1976). Perceptions of similarly and dissimilarly attractive couples and individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 772–781.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blair, I. V., Judd, C. M., & Chapleau, K. M. (2004). The influence of Afrocentric facial features in criminal sentencing. Psychological Science, 15(10), 674–679.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blair, I. V., Judd, C. M., Sadler, M.S., & Jenkins, C. (2002). The role of Afrocentric features in person perception: Judging by features and categories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 5–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York, Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bond, C., Di Canada, C., & McKinnon, J. R. (1988). Response to violence in a psychiatric setting. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 448–458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M. (1989). Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 1–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 1–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cash, T. F., & Kilcullen, R. N. (1985). The eye of the beholder: Susceptibility to sexism and “beautyism” in the evaluation of managerial applicants. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 15, 591–605.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chambers, J., Clark, T., Dantzler, L., & Baldwin, J. (1994). Perceived attractiveness, facial features and African self-consciousness. Journal of Black Psychology, 20(3), 305–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chideya, F. (1995). Don’t believe the hype: Fighting cultural misinformation about African Americans. New York: Penguin Books, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, K., & Clark, M. (1939a). The development of consciousness of self and the emergence of racial identification in negro preschool children. Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 591.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, K., & Clark, M. (1939b). Segregation as a factor in the racial identification of Negro preschool children: A preliminary report. Journal of Experimental Education, 8, 161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, K., & Clark, M. (1947). Racial identification and preference in Negro children. In T. Newcombe & E. C. Hartley (Eds.), Readings in social psychology (pp. 159–169). New York: Holt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark., K. B., & Clark, M. P. (1980). What do Blacks think of themselves? Ebony, 11, 176–182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, M. R. (1986). Measuring the physical in physical attractiveness: Quasi-experiments on the sociobiology of female facial beauty. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 925–935.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, M. R., Barbee, A., & Pike, C. (1990). What do women want? Facialmetric assessments of multiple motives in the perception of male facial physical attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 61–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, M. R., Roberts, A. R., Barbee, A. P., Druen, P. B., & Wu, C.-H. (1995). “Their ideas of beauty are, on the whole the same as ours”: Consistency and variability in the cross cultural perception of female physical attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 261–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darwin, C. (1874). The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. New York: Hurst.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, A., Gardner, B. R., & Gardner, M. R. (1941). Deep South. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dion, K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 285–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dipboye, R. L., Arvey, R. D., & Terpstra, D. E. (1977). Sex and physical attractiveness of raters and applicants as determinants of resume evaluation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 288–294.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dollard, J. (1957). Caste and class in southern town. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drake, S. C., & Cayton, H. (1945). Black metropolis. New York: Harcourt Brace.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drake, S. C., & Cayton, H. (1962). The measure of a man. In S. C. Drake and H. Cayton, (Eds.), Black metropolis: A study of Negro life in a northern city (vol. 2, pp. 495–525), New York: Harper.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A., Ashmore, R. D., Makhijani, M. G., & Longo, L. C. (1991). What is beautiful is good, but: A meta-analytic review of research on the physical attractiveness stereotype. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 109–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eberhardt, J. L., Davies, P. G., Purdie-Vaughans, V. J., & Johnson, S. L. (2006). Looking deathworthy: Perceived stereotypicality of Black defendants predicts capital-sentencing outcomes. Psychological Science, 15(5), 383–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, J. N. (1969). Familial behavior as social exchange. Journal of Marriage and The Family, 31, 518–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ekehammar, B., & Sidanius, J. (1982). Sex differences in socio-political ideology: a replication and extension. British Journal of Social Psychology, 21, 249–257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elder, G. (1969). Appearance and education in marriage mobility. American Sociological Review, 34, 519–533.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feingold, A. (1990). Gender Differences in effects of physical attractiveness on romantic attraction: A comparison across five research paradigms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 981–993.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fine, M., & Bowers, C. (1984). Racial self-identification: The effects of social history and gender. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 14(2), 136–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, J. H. (1968). Introduction: Color and race in the modern world. In J. H. Franklin (Ed.), Color and race. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, J. H. (1980). From slavery to freedom, 5th edition. New York: Knopf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, J. H. (1957b). The Negro in the United States. New York: McMillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gergen , K. J. (1968). The significance of skin color in human relations. In J. H. Franklin (Ed.), Color and race. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilmore, D. C., Beehr, T. A., & Love, K. G. (1986). Effects of applicant sex, applicant physical attractiveness, type of rater and type of job on interview decisions. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 59, 103–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, M. E. (1952). Race awareness in young children. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, S. (1944). The wishes of Negro school children. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 64, 225–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, R. E. (1992). Bias among African Americans regarding skin color: Implications for social work practice. Research on Social Work Practice, 2(4), 479–486.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henik, A., Munitz, S., & Priel, B. (1985). Color, skin color preferences and self color identification among Ethiopian- and Israeli-born children. Israeli Social Science Research, 3, 74–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herskovits, M. J. (1934). A critical discussion of the “mulatto hypothesis.” Journal of Negro Education, 3(3), 389–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Homans, G. C. (1961). Social behavior: Its elementary forms. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, M., & Hertel, B. R. (1990). The significance of color remains: A study of life chances, mate selection, and ethnic consciousness among Black Americans. Social Forces, 68(4), 1105–1120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, C. S. (1941). Growing up in the Black belt: Negro youth in the rural south. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keith, V. M., & Herring, C. (1991). Skin tone and stratification in the Black community. American Journal of Sociology, 97(3), 760–778.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kenrick, D. T., & Keefe, R. C. (1992). Age preferences in mates reflect sex differences in human reproductive strategies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 15, 75–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenrick, D. T., Neuberg, S. L., Zierk, K. L., & Krones, J. M. (1994). Evolution and social cognition: Contrast effects as a function of sex, dominance, and physical attractiveness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20(2), 210–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kovel, J. (1971). White racism: A psychohistory. New York: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landry, B. (1987). The new Black middle class. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln, C. E. (1968). Color and group identity in the United States. In J. H. Franklin (Ed.), Color and race. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maddox, K. B. (2004). Perspectives on racial phenotypicality bias. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8(4), 383–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maddox, K. B., & Gray, S. A. (2002). Cognitive representations of Black Americans: Reexploring the role of skin tone. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(2), 250–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mathes, E., & Kahn, A. (1975). Physical attractiveness, happiness, neuroticism, and self-esteem. The Journal of Psychology, 90, 27–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazella, R., & Feingold, A. (1994). The effects of physical attractiveness, race, socioeconomic status, and gender of defendants and victims on judgments of mock jurors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24(15), 1315–1338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merton, R. K. (1941). Intermarriage and the social structure: fact and theory. Psychiatry: Journal for the Study of Interpersonal Processes, 4, 361–374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morland, J. K. (1962). Racial acceptance and preference of nursery school children in a southern city. Merrill Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development, 8, 271–280.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murstein, B. I. (1976). Who will marry whom?: Theories and research in marital choice. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murstein, B. I., Merighi, J. R., & Malloy, T. E. (1989). Physical attractiveness and exchange theory in interracial dating. Journal of Social Psychology, 129(3), 325–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myrdal, G. (1944). An American dilemma. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neal, A. M., & Wilson, M. L. (1989). The role of skin color and features in the Black community: Implications for Black women and therapy. Clinical Psychology Review, 9, 323–333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002). Harvesting implicit group attitudes and beliefs from a demonstration website. Group Dynamics, 6(1), 101–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parrish, C. (1944). The significance of color in the Negro community. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation: University of Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell-Hopson, D., & Hopson, D. (1988). Implications of doll color preferences among Black preschool children and White preschool children. Journal of Black Psychology, 14(2), 57–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rand, C. S., & Hall, J. A. (1983). Sex differences in the accuracy of self-perceived attractiveness. Social Psychology Quarterly, 46, 359–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reuter, E. B. (1918). The mulatto in the United States. (1969 reprint). New York: Negro Universities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riggs, M. (Producer/Director) (1986). Ethnic notions [Film]. San Francisco, CA: California Newsreel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riggs, M. (Producer/Director) (1989). Old myths die hard: The case of Black self-esteem. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 2(3), 355–365.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, L. (1997). Mate selection preference among African American college students. Journal of Black Studies, 27, 554–580.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, K., Wilson, M., & Hall, R. (1993). The color complex: The politics of skin color among African Americans. New York: Harcourt Brace Janovich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sadalla, E. K., Kenrick, D. T., & Vershure, B. (1987). Dominance and heterosexual attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(4), 730–738.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sandler, K. (Producer/Director) (1992). A question of color [Film] San Francisco, CA: California Newsreel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulman, G. I. (1974). Race, sex and violence? A laboratory test of the sexual threat of the Black male hypothesis. American Journal of Sociology, 79, 1260–1277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schuman, H., Steeh, C., Bobo, L., & Krysan, M. (1997). Racial attitudes in America: Trends and interpretations. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sidanius, J., Levin, S., Liu, J.H., & Pratto, F. (2000). Social dominance orientation and the political psychology of gender: An extension and cross cultural replication. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 41–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sigall, H., & Landy, D. (1973). Radiating beauty: Effects of having a physically attractive partner on person perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(2), 293–307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D. (1993). Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: Role of waist- to- hip ratio. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(2), 293–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D. (1995). Female judgment of male attractiveness and desirability for relationships: Role of waist-to-hip ratio and financial status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(6), 1089–1101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, L., Burlew, A., & Lundgren, D. (1991). Black consciousness, self-esteem, and satisfaction with physical appearance among African American female college students. Journal of Black Studies, 20(1), 62–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thibaut, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. (1959). The social psychology of groups. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trivers, R. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In B. Campbell, (Ed.), Sexual selection and the descent of man: 1871–1971 (pp. 136–179). Chicago, IL: Aldine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Udry, J. R., & Billy, J. O. G. (1987). Initiation of coitus in early adolescence. American Sociological Review, 52, 841–855.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Udry, J. R., Bauman, K. E., & Chase, C. (1971). Skin color, status, and mate selection. American Journal of Sociology, 76, 722–733.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van den Berghe, P. L., & Frost, P. (1986). Skin color preference, sexual dimorphism and sexual selection: A case of gene culture co-evolution? Ethnic and Racial Studies, 9(1), 87–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wade, T. J. (1991). Marketplace economy: The evaluation of interracial couples. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 12(4), 405–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wade, T. J. (1996). The relationships between skin color and self-perceived global, physical, and sexual attractiveness, and self-esteem for African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 22(3) 358–373.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wade, T. J. (2000). Evolutionary theory and self-perception: Sex differences in body esteem predictors of physical and sexual attractiveness and self-esteem. International Journal of Psychology, 35(1), 36–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wade, T. J. (2003). Evolutionary theory and African American self-perception: Sex differences in body esteem predictors of physical and sexual attractiveness, and self-esteem. Journal of Black Psychology, 29(2), 123–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wade, T. J., & Bielitz, S. (2005). The differential effect of skin color on attractiveness, personality evaluations, and perceived life success of African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 31(3), 215–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wade, T. J., Thompson, V., Tashakkori, A., & Valente, E. (1989). A longitudinal analysis of sex by race differences in predictors of adolescent self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 10(7), 717–729.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wade, T. J., Milanak, M. A., Minaya, E. F., Schnure, K., & Shanley, A. (2003). Attractiveness and individual differences in men’s perceived mental health. Presented at the American Psychological Association Convention, Toronto, Canada, August 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wade, T. J., Romano, M. J., & Blue, L. (2004). The influence of African American skin color on hiring decisions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34(12), 2550–2558.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zebrowitz, L. A., Montepare, J. M., & Lee, H. K. (1993). They don’t all look alike: Individuated impressions of other racial groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(1), 85–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to T. Joel Wade .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2008 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Wade, T.J. (2008). Skin Color Biases: Attractiveness and Halo Effects in the Evaluation of African Americans. In: Hall, R.E. (eds) Racism in the 21st Century. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79098-5_8

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics