Abstract
For people of color (African-, Asian-, Latino-, and Native-American descent) in Western countries, the important attributes of the social system are ideals, which they internalize. According to James Baldwin, the root of American difficulty is directly related to skin color ideals. All matters considered necessitate the construction of the Bleaching Syndrome to acknowledge and comprehensively organize what is otherwise obvious, i.e., issues involving skin color. Much of what the Bleaching Syndrome involves is pathological to people of color and could not be imposed because it is contrary to their physical, emotional, and psychological well-being. In the aftermath, people of color and the social scientists among them, including Whites, must aspire to more conducive, somatic norms to escape the pathological influences of the Bleaching Syndrome or risk manifestation of racism in the 21st century and beyond.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aguirre, B., Saenz, R., & Hwang, S. (1995). Remarriage and intermarriage of Asians in the United States of America. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 26(2), 207–215.
Arroyo, J. (1996). Psychotherapist bias with Hispanics: An analog study. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 18(1), 21–28.
Banerjee, S. (1985). Assortive mating for color in Indian population. Journal of Biosocial Science, 17, 205–209.
Bogle, D. (1989). Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies and Bucks: An interpretative history of Blacks in American films. New York: Viking, 1973; new expanded edition, New York: Continuum, 1989.
Bogolub, E. (2006). The impact of recruitment-generated bias on qualitative research interviews with foster children. Families in Society, 87(1), 140–143.
Bonila-Silva, E. (1991). The essential social fact of race. American Sociological Review, 64(6), 899–906.
Burke, R., Divinagracia, L., & Mamo, E. (1998). Supervisors’ support received by women managers: Country and sex supervisors. Psychological Reports, 83(1), 12–14.
Chestang, L. (1995). Is it time to rethink affirmative action? No! Journal of Social Work Education, 32(1), 12–18.
Chisholm, N. (2002). Skin bleaching and the rejection of blackness: Fade to white. The Village Voice, January 23–29, 2002.
Dominguez, V. (1997). White by definition: Social classification in Creole. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Erikson, Erik H. (1968). Identity: youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
Falero v. Stryker Corporation, 10 F.Supp.2d 93 (D. Puerto Rico 1998).
Felix v. Manquez, 24EPD 279 (D.C.D.C. 1980).
Frost, P. (1989). Human skin color: a possible relationship between its sexual dimorphism and its social perception. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 32(1), pp. 38–58.
Gordon, Avery F. (1997). Ghostly matters: Haunting and the sociological imagination. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Hall, R. (2003). Skin color as a post-colonial issue among Asian-Americans. Lewiston, NY: Mellen Press.
Hall, R. E. (1990). The projected manifestations of aspiration, personal values, and environmental assessment cognates of cutaneo-chroma (skin color) for a selected population of African Americans (Doctoral dissertation, Atlanta University, 1989). Dissertation Abstracts International, 50, 3363A.
Hall, R. E. (1997). Eurogamy among Asian Americans: A note on Western assimilation. Social Science Journal, 34(3), pp. 403–408.
hooks, bell. (1992). Revolutionary renegades: Native Americans, African Americans and Black Indians. In Black looks: Race and representation. Boston: South End Press.
[IRIN] IRINNEWS.ORG. (2004). Pakistan focus on skin bleaching. UN Office of Humanitarian Affairs.
Jarvenpa, R. (1985). The political economy and political ethnicity of Indian adoption and identities. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 8, 29–48.
Jones, B. F. (1966). James Baldwin: The struggle for identity. British Journal of Sociology, 17, 107–121.
Katz, William L. (1986). Black Indians: A hidden heritage. New York: Atheneum.
Kazan, Elia. (1949). Pinky (director: Elia Kazan; 20th Century Fox, screenwriters: Philip Dunne, Dudley Nichols.) A film based on the 1946 novel Pinky, by Cid Ricketts
Kim, K. (1990). Blacks against Korean merchants: An interpretation of contributory factors. Migration World Magazine, 18(5), 11–15.
Kitano, H. (1985). Race relations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Lee, Y. (1991). Stereotypes, silence, and threats: The determinants of perceived group homogeneity. Dissertation Abstracts International, 52(6-B), 3342.
Leistikow, N. (2003). Indian women criticize “Fair and Lovely” ideal. 28 April 2003. http://www.womensenews.org/article.cfm/dyn/aid/1308/context/archive. Accessed 23 January 2007.
Levine, E. S., & Padilla, A. M. (1980). Crossing cultures in therapy. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Maslow, A. H. (1971). Self-actualizing and beyond. In The farther reaches of human nature. (pp. 41–53). New York: Viking, 1971.
Mazumdar, S. (1989). Racist response to discrimination: The Aryan myth and South Asians in the United States. South Asian Bulletin, 9(1), 47–55.
McGloin, L. (1992). Colonization: Its impact on self-image. FFP Bulletin, Spring/Summer.
Mead, G. (1934). Mind, self and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mish, F. C. (Ed.). (1989). Webster's ninth new collegiate dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam Webster.
Morrow v. the Internal Revenue Service, 742 F. Supp. 670 (N.D. Ga. 1990).
Myrdal, G. (1944). An American dilemma. New York: Harper & Row.
Nagel, J. (1997). American Indian ethnic renewal: Red power and the resurgence of Identity and Power. New York and Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press.
National Hockey League. (1997). NHL suspends Simon for slur. Times Fax.
National Hockey League. (1983). Black family life patterns, the development of self and cognitive development of Black children. In G. J. Powell (Ed.), The psychosocial development of minority group children (pp. 181–193). New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1983.
Obaahema Network. (November, 2002). Effects of skin bleaching. http://www.obaahema.com/Channels/health_fitness/article.cfm?ArticleID=7. Accessed 23 January 2008.
Opala, K. (2001). Cosmetics ban: Did standards body err? http://allafrica.com/stories/printable/200105290458.html. Accessed 12 April, 2003.
Rabinowitz, H. (1978). Race relations in the urban south. New York: Oxford University Press.
Reuter, E. (1969). The mulatto in the United States. New York: Haskell House.
Rhee, S. (1988). Korean and Vietnamese outmarriage: Characteristics and implications. Los Angeles: UCLA, DSW Dissertation.
Robinson, T., & Ward, J. (Aug. 1995). African American adolescents and skin color. Journal of Black Psychology, 21(3), 256–274.
Russell, K., Wilson, M., & Hall, R. (1992). The color complex: The politics of skin color among African Americans. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Shinagawa, L., & Pang, G. (1988). Intraethnic, and interracial marriages among Asian-Americans in California, 1980. Berkeley Journal of Sociology, 33, 95–114.
Snipp, C. Matthew. (1989). American Indians: The first of this land. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Sung, B. (1990). Chinese American intermarriage. Journal of Comparative American Studies, Fall, 21(3), 337–352.
Vontress, C. (1970). Counseling Black. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 48, 713–719.
Walker v. the IRS, 713 F Supp. 403. (U.S. Dist. Ga. 1989).
Washington, Robert. (1990). Brown discrimination and the formation of a world system of racial stratification. International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, 4(2), 209–227.
Wilson, M. (1992). What difference could a revolution make? Group work in the new Nicaragua. Social Work with Groups, 15(2/3), pp. 301–314.
Zastrow, C., & Kirst-Ashman, K. (1990). Understanding human behavior and the social environment. Chicago, IL: Nelson Hall.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2008 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hall, R.E. (2008). Manifestations of Racism in the 21st Century. In: Hall, R.E. (eds) Racism in the 21st Century. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79098-5_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79098-5_2
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-0-387-79097-8
Online ISBN: 978-0-387-79098-5
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and LawSocial Sciences (R0)