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Crime Mapping: Spatial and Temporal Challenges

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Handbook of Quantitative Criminology

Abstract

Crime opportunities are neither uniformly nor randomly organized in space and time. As a result, crime mappers can unlock these spatial patterns and strive for a better theoretical understanding of the role of geography and opportunity, as well as enabling practical crime prevention solutions that are tailored to specific places. The evolution of crime mapping has heralded a new era in spatial criminology, and a re-emergence of the importance of place as one of the cornerstones essential to an understanding of crime and criminality. While early criminological inquiry in France and Britain had a spatial component, much of mainstream criminology for the last century has labored to explain criminality from a dispositional perspective, trying to explain why a particular offender or group has a propensity to commit crime. This traditional perspective resulted in criminologists focusing on individuals or on communities where the community extended from the neighborhood to larger aggregations (Weisburd et al. 2004). Even when the results lacked ambiguity, the findings often lacked policy relevance. However, crime mapping has revived interest and reshaped many criminologists appreciation for the importance of local geography as a determinant of crime that may be as important as criminal motivation. Between the individual and large urban areas (such as cities and regions) lies a spatial scale where crime varies considerably and does so at a frame of reference that is often amenable to localized crime prevention techniques. For example, without the opportunity afforded by enabling environmental weaknesses, such as poorly lit streets, lack of protective surveillance, or obvious victims (such as overtly wealthy tourists or unsecured vehicles), many offenders would not be as encouraged to commit crime.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    An additional data structure is common outside of the crime field; the raster. A raster-based data model ‘represents spatial features using cells or pixels that have attribute information attached to them’ (Chainey and Ratcliffe 2005: 43). Rasters are common in many areas of geography; however, crime researchers tend to overwhelmingly favor the vector approach of points, lines and polygons. Both approaches have their advantages and disadvantages and are not mutually exclusive.

  2. 2.

    ‘Advanced economies’ is a term used by the International Monetary Fund. The current 32 countries on the list (at the time of writing) would be the most likely countries to have street indices for most of the country.

  3. 3.

    Projected coordinate systems, where locations are identified with x-y coordinate pairs, are preferable because they enable simple distance calculations between points; however, geographic coordinate systems that locate places with latitude and longitude coordinates are still used in some crime mapping applications. A useful reference and free download online is Harries (1999); see http://www.ncjrs.gov/html/nij/mapping/pdf.html.

  4. 4.

    For the technically-minded, the city was divided into grid cells such that there were at least 250 columns, and then a quartic kernel estimation process was applied with a bandwidth of 2,000 feet.

  5. 5.

    Again for the technically-minded, the output was created using a first order, Queen’s contiguity spatial weights matrix, with pseudo significance limit set at 0.01 with 999 permutations. The software used to perform the analysis was the freely-available GeoDa. For map clarity and simplification, areas of low robbery surrounded by high robbery count, and high surrounded by low are not indicated.

  6. 6.

    Cluster map created using the same parameter choices as for Fig. 2.2. In Fig. 2.3’s temporal charts, please note the change in vertical scale.

  7. 7.

    Michael Faraday, chemist, physicist, 1791–1867. From personal letters quoted in Thompson (1898).

  8. 8.

    As an example, an animated map showing hour-by-hour changes in violent crime hotspots in Camden, NJ, is available to download from the chapter author’s web site at www.jratcliffe.net/var/violence.wmv.

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Acknowledgement

The author would like to thank the Philadelphia Police Department for continued support and provision of data over many years, and Ralph B. Taylor, Martin Andresen, Shane Johnson, George Rengert, Liz Groff and Travis Taniguchi for comments on an earlier draft of this chapter; however, opinions, omissions and errors remain firmly the fault of the author.

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  1. Department of Criminal Justice, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Jerry Ratcliffe

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  1. College of Criminology, Florida State University, West Call Street 643, Tallahassee, 32306, U.S.A.

    Alex R. Piquero

  2. Inst. Criminology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, 91905, Israel

    David Weisburd

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Ratcliffe, J. (2010). Crime Mapping: Spatial and Temporal Challenges. In: Piquero, A., Weisburd, D. (eds) Handbook of Quantitative Criminology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-77650-7_2

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