Abstract
Internal interfaces (grain boundaries, phase boundaries, stacking faults) or external interfaces (i.e., surfaces) are surely the most important defects in crystalline engineering materials. Their common feature is that we can usually think of them as all being two-dimensional, or planar, defects (even though they’re not really). The main topics of this chapter will be ■ Characterizing which type of internal interface we have and determining its main parameters. ■ Identifying lattice translations at these interfaces from the appearance of the diffractioncontrast images.
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References
We suggest a few books or chapters of books for background reading. You’ll realize that careers have been built on this topic. As usual, we also recommend that you read some of the original papers.
Interfaces
Christian, JW 1975 The Theory of Transformations in Metals and Alloys, Part 1, 2nd edition, Pergamon Press New York.
Carter, CB and Norton, MG 2007 Ceramic Materials Springer New York. Chapters illustrating interfaces in ceramics.
Forwood, CT and Clarebrough, LM 1991 Electron Microscopy of Interfaces in Metals and Alloys, Adam Hilger New York. Invaluable for anyone studying interfaces by TEM.
Howe, JM 1997 Interfaces in Materials: Atomic Structure, Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Solid-Vapor, Solid-Liquid and Solid-Solid Interfaces Wiley New York.
Matthews, John Wauchope 1975, Epitaxial Growth Academic Press/Elsevier New York. Unfortunate use of ‘epitaxial’ instead of epitactic by a pioneer in the subject. (Yes, the father of Dave Matthews.)
Sutton, AP and Balluffi, RW 1995 Interfaces in Crystalline Materials, Oxford University Press New York.
Wolf, D and Yip, S, Eds. 1992 Materials Interfaces, Atomic-level Structure and Properties. Chapman and Hall New York.
Thinking About Contrast
The book by Head et al. (see Section 1.5) is the starting text for simulating diffraction-contrast images.
Amelinckx, S and Van Landuyt, J 1978 in Diffraction and Imaging Techniques in Materials Science, 1 and 2, (Eds., S Amelinckx, R Gevers and J Van Landuyt), 2nd Ed., p. 107, North-Holland New York.
Anstis GR and Cockayne DJH 1979 The Calculation and Interpretation of High-Resolution Electron Microscope Images of Lattice Defects Acta Cryst. A35, 511–524.
Edington, JW 1976 Practical Electron Microscopy in Materials Science, Van Nostrand Reinhold New York. A classic practical guide but sometimes not suitable for modern TEMs.
Gevers R, Art, A and Amelinckx S 1963 Electron Microscopic Images of Single and Intersecting Stacking Faults in Thick Foils – 1. Single faults Phys. Stat. Sol. 3, 1563–93.
Gevers R, Blank H and Amelinckx S 1966 Extension of the Howie-Whelan Equations for Electron Diffraction to Non-Centro Symmetrical Crystals Phys. Stat. Sol. 13, 449–465. See this paper for discussion of imaginary extinction distances, ξ g ′.
The Column Approximation
Howie A and Basinski ZS 1968 Approximations of the Dynamical Theory of Diffraction Contrast Phil. Mag. 17, 1039–63. The non-column approximation paper.
Howie A and Sworn H 1970 Column Approximation Effects in High Resolution Electron Microscopy Using Weak Diffracted Beams Phil. Mag. 22, 861–4. Example of a situation where the column approximation gives the wrong answer.
Extinction Distances
Doyle PA and Turner PS 1968 Relativistic Hartree-Fock X-ray and Electron Scattering Factors Acta Cryst. A24, 390–7.
Hashimoto, H, Howie, A and Whelan, MJ 1962 Anomalous Electron Absorption Effects in Metal Foils: Theory and Comparison with Experiment Proc. Roy. Soc. London A 269, 80–103. Bloch waves and planar defects.
Hirsch PB, Howie A, Nicholson RB, Pashley DW and Whelan MJ 1977 Electron Microscopy of Thin Crystals, 2nd edition, p. 225, Krieger, Huntington, New York. Deduces equation 25.27.
Humphreys CJ and Hirsch PB 1968 Absorption Parameters in Electron Diffraction Theory Phil. Mag. 18, 115–122.
Mott NF and Massey HSW 1965 The Theory of Atomic Collisions, 3rd Ed., Clarendon Press Oxford. Source of the Mott expression for X-ray scattering factors.
Taftø, J and Spence, JCH 1982 A Simple Method for the Determination of Structure-Factor Phase Relationships and Crystal Polarity Using Electron Diffraction J. Appl. Cryst. 15, 60-4. Shows how to distinguish g and \(\bar{\bf g}\) using CBED.
Yoshioka, H 1957 Effect of Inelastic Waves on Electron Diffraction J. Phys. Soc. Japan 12, 618–628. See this paper for discussion of imaginary Fourier components, U g ′.
Simulation
The original citation is the text by Head et al. (Section 1.5). It is still useful reading but needs a trip to the library.
Rasmussen, DR and Carter, CB 1991 A Computer Program for Many-Beam Image Simulation of Amplitude-Contrast Images J. Electron Microsc. Techniques 18, 429–36. An idea of what we need in a user-friendly (Comis) program.
Rasmussen, DR, McKernan, S and Carter, CB 1991 Rigid-Body Translation and Bonding Across {110} Antiphase Boundaries in GaAs Phys. Rev. Lett. 66, 2629–32.
Schaublin, R and Stadelmann, P 1993 Method for Simulating Electron Microscope Dislocation Images Mater. Sci. Engng. A164, 373–8. The paper describing CuFour.
Thölen AR 1970 A Rapid Method for Obtaining Electron Microscope Contrast Maps of Various Lattice Defects Phil. Mag. 22, 175–182.
Thölen AR 1970 On the Ambiguity Between Moiré Fringes and the Electron Diffraction Contrast from Closely Spaced Dislocations Phys. Stat. Sol. (A) 2, 537–550.
Viguier, B, Hemker, KJ and Vanderschaeve, G 1994 Factors Affecting Stacking Fault Contrast in Transmission Electron Microscopy: Comparisons with Image Simulations Phil. Mag. A69, 19–32.
Zhou, Z 2005 Electron Microscopy and Elastic Diffuse Scattering of Nanostructures D.Phil. Thesis, Oxford University. Zhongfu developed TEMACI.
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Williams, D.B., Carter, C.B. (2009). Planar Defects. In: Transmission Electron Microscopy. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-76501-3_25
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-76501-3_25
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