Abstract
This chapter examines some of the most widely researched trends and developments within the phenomenon of modern international terrorism, providing policy recommendations on how to counter its emerging threats – particularly that of the Global Jihad movement and “homegrown” terrorism. The magnitude of the modern terrorist threat was demonstrated by the attacks of September 11, and ever since, the field has experienced a renewal of sorts, attracting unprecedented attention by both scholars and the mainstream public. This chapter will introduce readers to the main schools of thoughts within the academic field that explain terrorism. It will also present the many disciplines applicable to the study of terrorism, demonstrating that the phenomenon is multifaceted in nature, requiring a cohesive international and broad-based response. In covering a number of dilemmas facing terrorism experts, the chapter explores the debate over a definition of terrorism, providing a proposed definition that distinguishes acts of terrorism from criminal acts. The chapter continues on to explore the phenomenon of modern terrorism, the role of traditional crime within the terror sphere, and the growing threat of Global Jihadi terrorism – including terror networks and homegrown cells and activists who have emerged as a result of the spread of radical Islamic ideology. The role of terrorism in democratic states and the economic ramifications of terrorism are also explored. Finally, the chapter ends with recommendations on how governments should effectively respond to terrorism and discuses room for further research.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsNotes
- 1.
Analysis of terrorist incidents over the last 35 years confirms that terrorist attacks, while arguably decreasing in quantity, are growing more deadly over time, as the number of fatalities per attack has increased (LaFree and Dugan, in this volume). Such data, however, rely on a definition of terrorism that LaFree and Dugan themselves note is relatively “inclusive.” The Global Terrorism Database (GTD), on which their analysis is based, excludes “attacks on the military by guerilla organizations,” but includes military targets attacked by substate actors motivated by political, economic, or social motives (See LaFree and Dugan; in this volume).
- 2.
- 3.
For an overview of psychological, social, and rational choice theories, see Victoroff, 2005.
- 4.
Several studies have focused on refuting the widely claimed link between poverty and terrorism (Harmon, 2000; Hasisi and Pedahzur, 2000; Schmid, 1983). In fact, a 2003 study by Krueger and Maleckova showed that higher-earning Palestinians were more likely to justify the use of terrorism to achieve political goals; and a 2002 study (Krueger and Maleckova, 2002) did not find a link between Hezbollah fighters and impoverished conditions – rather, they were richer and more educated than their counterparts. Another study looked at the biographies of 285 suicide bombers and found them to be richer and more educated than members of the general population (Victoroff, 2005:21).
- 5.
Until September 11, there were few academic studies of terrorism from a strictly sociological viewpoint. However, Bandura (1973, 1998) used social learning theory to suggest that violence follows observation and imitation of an aggressive model. Friedland (1992) cited the “frustration-aggression hypothesis” in understanding why terrorists turn to violence (as cited in Victoroff, 2005). Morgan (2001) applied the cult model to understand individual actors and group dynamics within terrorist groups.
- 6.
For the role of policing in counter-terrorism strategies, see Chaps. 3–5 of this volume. LaFree and Dugan (Chap. 2) also briefly discuss the comparison between rates of terrorist attacks and other types of criminal violence. The interplay and linkages between organized crime and terrorism are explored in several anthology volumes, such as Holmes (2007), among many others.
- 7.
In a presentation on the definition of terrorism to the UK Parliament in March 2007, Lord Carlile quoted David Tucker from Skirmishes at the Edge of the Empire, stating that: “Above the gates of hell is the warning that all that enter should abandon hope. Less dire but to the same effect is the warning given to those who try to define terrorism” (See http://www.tamilnation.org/terrorism/uk/070317carlile.htm); for a reporter’s perspective see Kinsley, 2001; see also Levitt (1986), in which he claims a definition for terrorism is no easier to find than the Holy Grail.
- 8.
Resolution 1566 (2004) adopted by the Security Council in its 5053rd meeting, on Oct. 8 2004: “…Reaffirming that terrorism in all its forms and manifestations constitutes one of the most serious threats to peace and security. Considering that acts of terrorism seriously impair the enjoyment of human rights and threaten the social and economic development of all states, they undermine global stability and prosperity.” (See: http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N04/542/82/PDF/N0454282.pdf?OpenElement.)
- 9.
- 10.
Terrorism is defined by the U.S. State Department as: “premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents.” (from the 22 U.S.C., 2656f(d)(2); See http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2005/65353.htm.)
- 11.
The UN short legal definition of terrorism, proposed by terrorism expert Alex P. Schmid, states that an act of terrorism is the “peacetime equivalent of a war crime.” While such a definition does not consider terrorism an act of war, in drawing a parallel with a war crime it notes the importance of the target (civilian vs. military) in legitimizing acts of violence. (See: http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_definitions.html.)
- 12.
Resolution 1566 (2004): “Condemns in the strongest terms all acts of terrorism irrespective of their motivation, whenever and by whomsoever committed, as one of the most serious threats to peace and security…Recalls that criminal acts, including against civilians committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury or taking hostages with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons intimidate a population or compel a government or an offences within the scope of and as defined in the international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism, are under no circumstances justifiable by considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic religious or other similar nature and calls upon all states to prevent such acts…”. (See: http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N04/542/82/PDF/N0454282.pdf?OpenElement)
- 13.
The term “terrorism” comes from the Latin terrere, “to cause to tremble.” The term became popularized during the “Reign of Terror” carried out by the revolutionary government in France from 1793 to 1794 (Juergensmeyer, 2003: 5).
- 14.
LaFree and Dugan note that over 53% of terrorist organizations from the Global Terrorism Database included in their study (1974–2004) have never produced a single fatality (LaFree and Dugan, in this volume).
- 15.
To illustrate the amount of money involved, a survey conducted by the United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention described the production, trafficking, and sales of illicit drugs to be an estimated $400-billion-a-year industry. A 2005 UN report estimated that global drug trade generated an estimated $322 billion in 2003, greater than the gross domestic product of 88% of the countries in the world (Pollard, 2005).
- 16.
See Deborah McCarthy’s testimony before the Committee on the Judiciary United States Senate, May 20, 2003, “Narco-Terrorism: International Drug Trafficking and Terrorism – A Dangerous Mix.”
- 17.
For example, On August 28, 1971, a Dutch citizen, Henrietta Hundemeir, was arrested in Israel with a suitcase containing a timer-activated bomb with a barometric altimeter. The bomb was meant to explode in the El Al aircraft in which she herself was flying to Israel. Hundemeir was enlisted in Yugoslavia by a member of the “Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine,” who became her close friend by supplying her with drugs and using them with her.
- 18.
One example is the “Weatherman” organization, which was responsible for terrorist attacks in the U.S. at the end of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. The group perceived drug use as a part of the revolutionary process.
- 19.
There are also terrorist organizations that combine religious grievances with national-political motivations, such as Hamas. On the one hand, Hamas derives its ideology from the same narrative and background as Al-Qaeda, based on the early religious global ideology of the Muslim Brotherhood. At the same time though, Hamas seeks to achieve the nationalistic goal of destroying Israel and creating a Palestinian state in its place.
- 20.
For definition of post-modern terrorism see (Ganor, 2005b).
- 21.
Of the more than 82,000 attacks analyzed in their database study, Lafree and Dugan found only 1.3% used weapons of mass destruction, which by their adopted definition includes nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons in addition to guided missiles and sophisticated explosives intended to kill a large number of people and to create mass disruption.
- 22.
Dr. Abd al Aziz Rantisi published a written statement on Hamas’ official web site calling on Muslims all over the world to wage an “economic jihad” against the United States. Muslims must recruit their financial resources and capabilities to strike and weaken the US economy. See: Col. (res.) Jonathan Fighel, “Hamas calls for “Economic Jihad” against the U.S.”, www.ict.org.il/index.php?sid=119&lang=en&act=page&id=5954&str=jonathan%20fighel
References
Abadie, A. 2004. Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism. KGS Faculty Research Working Paper Series RWP04–043. Cambridge: Harvard University.
Abd Al-Rahim Hassan Nazzal and others vs. the Commander of the IDF forces in Judea and Samaria. 1994. Israeli High Court of Justice 94/6026, verdict 48 (5):338.
Al-Mukarramah, M. 2001. Terrorism – The Islamic Point of View. Distributed at the NGO conference in Durban. Durban, South Africa: Muslim World League.
Atran, S. 2006. The moral logic and growth of suicide terrorism. Washington Quarterly 29 (2):127–147.
Bandura, A. 1973. Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, London: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. 1998. Mechanisms of moral disengagement. In Origins of Terrorism, ed. W. Reich, Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center.
Campbell, J. K. 2000. On not understanding the problem. In Hype or Reality? The “New Terrorism” and Mass Casualty Attacks, ed. B. Roberts, Alexandria, VA: The Chemical and Biological Arms Institute.
Cooper, H. H. A. (“Tony”) 1978. Psychopath as terrorist: A psychological perspective. Legal Medical Quarterly 2:253–262.
Crenshaw, M. 1992. Decisions to use terrorism: Psychological constraints on instrumental reasoning. In Social Movements and Violence: Participation in Underground Organizations, ed. D. D. Porta, Greenwich, London: JAI.
Crenshaw, M. 1998. The logic of terrorism: Terrorist behavior as a product of strategic choice. In Origins of Terrorism, ed. W. Reich, Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center.
Crenshaw, M. 2000. The psychology of terrorism: An agenda for the 21st century. Political Psychology 21(2):405–420.
De la Corte, L., A. Kruglanski, J. de Miguel, J. M. Sabucedo, and D. Diaz. 2007. Siete principios psicosociales para explicar el terrorismo (Seven Psychosocial principles to explain terrorism). Psicothema 19(3):366–374.
Federman, and others vs. the Attorney General and others. 1993. Israeli High Court of Justice 93/4162.
Friedland, N. 1992. Becoming a terrorist: Social and individual antecedents. In Terrorism: Roots, Impact, Responses, ed. L. Howard. New York: Praeger.
Gal-Or, N. 1991. Do western societies tolerate terrorism? In Tolerating Terrorism in the West: An International Survey, ed. N. Gal-Or, London: Routledge.
Ganor, B. 2005. The Counter-Terrorism Puzzle: A Guide for Decision Makers. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Ganor, B. 2005b. The feasibility of post-modern terrorism. In Post Modern Terrorism, ed. B. Ganor, Israel: The Interdisciplinary Center – the International Policy institute for Counter-Terrorism.
Gibbs, J. P. 1989. Conceptualization of terrorism. American Sociological Review 54 (3):329–340.
Hacker, F. 1976. Crusaders, Criminals, Crazies: Terror and Terrorism in Our Time. New York: Norton.
Harmon, C. 2000. Terrorism Today. London: Frank Cass.
Hasisi, B., and A. Pedahzur. 2000. State, policy, and political violence: Arabs in the Jewish state. Civil Wars 3:64–68.
Henkin, L. 1989. General course on public international law, 216/IV Collected Courses (1989) 9, as referenced in Sassoli, Marco. 2006. Terrorism and war. Journal of International Criminal Justice 4:959–981.
Heskin, K. 1984. The psychology of terrorism in Ireland. In Terrorism in Ireland, eds. Y. Alexander and A. O’Day. New York: St. Martin’s.
Hoffman, B. 1995. Holy terror: The implications of terrorism motivated by a religious imperative. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 18(4):271–284.
Hoffman, B. 1998. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press.
Hoffman, B. 2004. Defining terrorism. In Terrorism and Counterterrorism, eds. R. D. Howard and R. L. Sawyer, Dubuque: McGraw-Hill.
Hoffman, B. 2006. Inside Terrorism, Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Columbia University Press.
Hoffman, B., and J. M. Taw. 1992. A Strategic Framework for Countering Terrorism and Insurgency, a Rand Note; N-3506-DOS. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
Holmes, L. 2007. Terrorism, Organized Crime and Corruption: Networks and Linkages. Cheltenham: Elgar.
Horgan, J. 2005. The Psychology of Terrorism. London: Routledge.
Hubbard, D. G. 1971. The Skyjacker: His Flights of Fantasy. New York: Macmillan.
Hudson, R. A. 2003. Terrorist and Organized Crime Groups in the Tri-Border Area (TBA) of South America. Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. http://purl.access.gpo.gov/GPO/LPS49424 (accessed November 2, 2008).
Jessee, D. D. 2006. Tactical means, strategic ends: Al Qaeda’s use of denial and deception. Terrorism and Political Violence 18 (3):367–388.
Juergensmeyer, M. 2003. Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence. London: University of California Press.
Kahn, J., and T. Weiner. 2002. World leaders rethinking strategy on aid to poor. The New York Times, 18 March, sec. A1, p. 3.
Kinsley, M. 2001. Defining terrorism: It’s essential, it’s also impossible. Slate, 5 October. http://www.slate.com/id/116697 (accessed November 19, 2008).
Klein, M. W., and C. L. Maxson. 2006. Street Gang Patterns and Policies. New York: Oxford University Press.
Klein, M. W., F. M. Weerman, and T. P. Thornberry. 2006. Street gang violence in Europe. European Journal of Criminology 3(4):413–437.
Krueger, A. B., and D. D. Laitin. 2008. Kto Kogo?: A cross-country study of the origins and targets of terrorism. In Terrorism, Economic Development and Political Openness, eds. P. Keefer and N. Loayza, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Krueger, A. B., and J. Maleckova. 2002. Education, Poverty, Political Violence, and Terrorism: Is There a Connection? Working Paper No. w9074. US: National Bureau of Economic Research. http://papers.nber.org/papers/w9074 (accessed November 18, 2008).
Krueger, A. B., and J. Maleckova. 2003. Education, poverty and terrorism: Is there a causal connection? Journal of Economic Perspectives 17(4):119–144.
Lafree, G. 2007. Expanding criminology’s domain: The American Society of Criminology 2006 Presidential Address. Criminology 45(1):1–31.
Laqueur, W. 1987. Terrorism and the media. In The Age of Terrorism, ed. W. Laqueur, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
Lasch, C. 1979. The Culture of Narcissism. New York: Warner Books.
Levitt, G. 1986. Is terrorism worth defining? Ohio Northern University Law Review 13:97–115.
Madani, B. 2002. Hezbollah’s global finance network: The triple frontier. The Middle East Intelligence Bulletin 4(1). www.meib.org/articles/0201_l2.htm (accessed November 19, 2008).
Melnick, R., and R. Eldor. 2004. Financial markets and terrorism. European Journal of Political Economy 20(2):367–386.
Merari, A. 2004. Suicide terrorism. In Assessment, Treatment, and Prevention of Suicidal behavior, eds. R. I. Yufit and D. Lester, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Mili, H. 2006. Tangled webs: Terrorist and organized crime groups. Terrorism Monitor 4:(1). http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2369866 (accessed November 3, 2008).
Millon, T. 1981. Disorders of Personality: DSM-III, Axis II. US: Wiley.
Morgan, S.J. 2001. The supporters of Terrorism – Cultneurosis. In The Mind of the Terrorist Fundamentalist. http://www.terrorpsychology.com/supporters.htm
Nacos, B. 1994. Terrorism and the Media: From the Iran Hostage Crisis to the World Trade Center Bombing. New York: Columbia University Press.
Netanyahu, B. 1987. Terrorism, How the West Can Win. Tel-Aviv: The Jonathan Institute.
Noble, R. K. 2003. The Links Between Intellectual Property Crime and Terrorist Financing. Text of public testimony before the United States House Committee on International Relations, July 16, 2003. http://www.interpol.int/Public/ICPO/speeches/SG20030716.asp (accessed November 18, 2008).
Pearce, K. I. 1977. Police negotiations – new role for community psychiatrist. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal 22(4):171–175.
Piazza, J. A. 2006. Rooted in poverty? Terrorism, poor economic development, and social cleavages. Terrorism and Political Violence 18(1):159–177.
Pollard, N. 2005. Illegal drug trade a world force – UN. Reuters News Service, 29 June. http://www.csdp.org/news/news/reut_un05_062905.htm (accessed November 19, 2008).
Post, J. M. 1987. Rewarding fire with fire – effects of retaliation on terrorist group-dynamics. Terrorism 10(1):23–35.
Post, J. 1998. Terrorist psycho-logic: Terrorist behavior as a product of psychological forces. In Origins of Terrorism, ed. W. Reich, Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center.
Raine, A. 1993. The Psychopathology of Crime: Criminal Behavior as a Clinical Disorder. San Diego, CA: Academic.
Ranstorp, M. 1996. Terrorism in the name of religion. Journal of International Affairs 50(1):41–63.
Rapoport, D. C. 1984. Fear and trembling – terrorism in 3 religious traditions. American Political Science Review 78(3):658–677.
Rasch, W. 1979. Psychological dimensions of political terrorism in the Federal-Republic-of-Germany. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 2(1):79–85.
Roth, K. 2004. The law of war in the war on terror – Washington’s abuse of “enemy combatants”. Foreign Affairs 83(1):2.
Sageman, M. 2004. Understanding Terror Networks. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Sandler, T., and H. E. Lapan. 1988. The calculus of dissent: An analysis of terrorist’s choice of targets. Synthese 76(2):245–261.
Sandler, T., J. T. Tschirhart, and J. Cauley. 1983. A theoretical analysis of transnational terrorism. American Political Science Review 77(1):36–54
Schmid, A. P. 1983. Political Terrorism: A Research Guide to the Concepts, Theories, Databases and Literature. Amsterdam: North Holland.
Schmid, A. P. 1993. Terrorism and democracy. In Western Responses to Terrorism, eds. A. P. Schmid and R. D. Crelinsten, London: Frank Cass.
Schmid, A. P., and A. J. Jongman. 1988. Political Terrorism. Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Company.
Shprinzak, E. 1998. The psychopolitical formation of extreme left terrorism in democracy: The case of the weathermen. In Origins of Terrorism, ed. R. Walter, Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center.
Silke, A. 1998. Cheshire-cat logic: The recurring theme of terrorist abnormality in psychological research. Psychology Crime & Law 4(1):51–69.
Stahelski, A. 2004. Terrorists are made, not born: Creating terrorists using social psychological conditioning. Journal of Homeland Security March:1–7. http://www.homelandsecurity.org/journal/Default.aspx?oid=109&ocat=1 (accessed November 18, 2008).
Taylor, M. 1988. The Terrorist. London: Brassey’s Defense.
Thomson, J. A. 2003. Killer apes on American airlines, or how religion was the main hijacker on September 11. In Violence or Dialogue: Psychoanalytic Insights on Terror and Terrorism, eds. S. Varvin and V. D. Volkan London: International Psychoanalytical Association.
Tri-border Transfers “funding terror”. 2006. BBC News, 14 Dec. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6179085.stm (accessed November 19, 2008).
Victoroff, J. 2005. The mind of the terrorist – A review and critique of psychological approaches. Journal of Conflict Resolution 49(1):3–42.
Vidino, L., and S. Emerson. 2006. Al Qaeda in Europe: The New Battleground of International Jihad. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
Webb, G. R. 2002. Sociology, disasters, and terrorism: Understanding threats of the new millennium. Sociological Focus 35(1):87–95.
Wedgwood, R., and K. Roth. 2004. Combatants or criminals? How Washington should handle terrorists. Foreign Affairs 83(3):126.
Wilson, M. A. 2000. Toward a model of terrorist behavior in hostage-taking incidents. Journal of Conflict Resolution 44(4):403–424.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ganor, B. (2009). Trends in Modern International Terrorism. In: Weisburd, D., Feucht, T., Hakimi, I., Mock, L., Perry, S. (eds) To Protect and To Serve. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-73685-3_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-73685-3_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-0-387-73684-6
Online ISBN: 978-0-387-73685-3
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and LawSocial Sciences (R0)