Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Image Formation in the Microscope

  • Chapter
Polymer Microscopy

  • 6512 Accesses

Abstract

The basic optics of the optical microscope and the conventional transmission electron microscope (TEM) are similar. Condenser lenses illuminate the object to be imaged with a flood of radiation, and imaging lenses form the radiation leaving the object into a magnified image. The formation, contrast and resolution of images in these microscopes can be understood with classical optics, which includes geometrical (particle) and physical (wave) optics. Both electrons and light may be considered as propagating waves with an amplitude and a phase, though only the intensity which equals (amplitude)2 can be directly observed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 189.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. F.A. Jenkins and H.E. White, Fundamentals of Optics, 4th ed. (McGraw-Hill, New York, 2001).

    Google Scholar 

  2. E. Hecht, Optics, 4th ed. (Addison Wesley, Reading, MA, 2001).

    Google Scholar 

  3. W.T. Welford, Optics, (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1988).

    Google Scholar 

  4. L.C. Martin, The Theory of the Microscope (Blackie, London, 1966).

    Google Scholar 

  5. M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, 7th ed. (Pergamon, Oxford, 1999).

    Google Scholar 

  6. E.M. Slayter and H.S. Slayter, Light and Electron Microscopy (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992).

    Google Scholar 

  7. T.G. Rochow and P.A. Tucker, Introduction to Microscopy by Means of Light, Electrons, X-Rays, or Acoustics, 2nd ed. (Springer, New York, 1994).

    Google Scholar 

  8. S.G. Lipson and H. Lipson, Optical Physics (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1969).

    Google Scholar 

  9. M. Spencer, Fundamentals in Light Microscopy (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1982).

    Google Scholar 

  10. L. Reimer, Transmission Electron Microscopy, Physics of Image Formation and Microanalysis, 4th ed. (Springer, Berlin, 1997).

    Google Scholar 

  11. J.R. Waring, R. Lovell, G.R. Mitchell and A.H. Windle, J. Mater. Sci. 17 (1982) 1171.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. I.G. Voigt-Martin, Adv. Polym. Sci. 67 (1985) 196.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Z. Zhang and X. Yang, Polymer 47 (2006) 5213.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. J. Buerger, Elementary Crystallography (Wiley, New York, 1963).

    Google Scholar 

  15. W. Borchardt-Ott, Crystallography, 2nd ed. (Springer, New York, 1995).

    Google Scholar 

  16. D.E. Sands, Introduction to Crystallography (Dover, New York, 1994) [reprint].

    Google Scholar 

  17. C. Hammond, The Basics of Crystallography and Diffraction (IUCr Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1997).

    Google Scholar 

  18. C. Giacovazzo, Ed. Fundamentals of Crystallography 2nd ed. (Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York, 2002).

    Google Scholar 

  19. N.H. Hartshorne and A. Stuart, Crystals and the Polarizing Microscope (Elsevier, New York, 1970).

    Google Scholar 

  20. P. Gay, An Introduction to Crystal Optics (Longmans, London, 1967).

    Google Scholar 

  21. L.H. Schwartz and J.B. Cohen, Diffraction from Materials (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1987).

    Google Scholar 

  22. J.M. Schultz, Diffraction for Materials Scientists (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1982).

    Google Scholar 

  23. J.M. Cowley, Ed. Electron Diffraction Techniques (Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York, 1992–1993).

    Google Scholar 

  24. J.C.H. Spence and J.M. Zuo, Electron Microdiffraction (Plenum Press, New York, 1992).

    Google Scholar 

  25. D.B. Williams and C.B. Carter, Transmission Electron Microscopy: A Textbook for Materials Science (Plenum Press, New York, 1996).

    Google Scholar 

  26. B. Wunderlich, Macromolecular Physics, Vol. 1 (Academic Press, New York, 1973).

    Google Scholar 

  27. P. Allen and M. Bevis, Proc. Roy. Soc. A341 (1974) 75.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  28. A.J. Lovinger and H.D. Keith, Macromolecules 12 (1979) 919.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. D.L. Dorset, Structural Electron Crystallography (Springer, New York, 1995).

    Google Scholar 

  30. D.L. Dorset, Rep. Prog. Phys. 66 (2003) 305.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. A. Du Chesne, Macromol. Chem. Phys. 200 (1999) 1813.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  32. R.H. Geiss, G.B. Street, W. Volksen and J. Economy, IBM J. Res. Develop. 27 (1983) 321.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. W. Claffey, K. Gardner, J. Blackwell, J. Lando and P.H. Geil, Philos. Mag. 30 (1974) 1223.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. J.R. Fryer and D.L. Dorset, Eds. Electron Crystallography of Organic Molecules (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Boston, 1991).

    Google Scholar 

  35. L.E. Alexander, X-ray Diffraction Methods in Polymer Science (Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1969).

    Google Scholar 

  36. M. Kakudo and N. Kasai, X-ray Diffraction by Polymers (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1972).

    Google Scholar 

  37. R.D. Heidenreich, Fundamentals of Transmission Microscopy (Wiley, New York, 1964).

    Google Scholar 

  38. J.I. Goldstein, D.E. Newbury, D.C. Joy, C.E. Lyman, P. Echlin, E. Lifshin, L.C. Sawyer and J.R. Michael, Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-ray Microanalysis, 3rd ed. (Plenum, New York, 2003).

    Google Scholar 

  39. C.E. Hall, Introduction to Electron Microscopy, 2nd ed. (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1966).

    Google Scholar 

  40. P. Buseck, J. Cowley and L. Eyring, Eds. High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy and Associated Techniques (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1988).

    Google Scholar 

  41. K. Stenn and G.F. Bahr, J. Ultrastruct. Res. 31 (1970) 526.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. D.T. Grubb, J. Mater. Sci. 9 (1974) 1715.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. L. Reimer, Ed. Energy-Filtering Transmission Electron Microscopy (Springer, New York, 1995).

    Google Scholar 

  44. K.H. Kortje, U. Paulus, M. Ibsch and H. Rahmann, J. Microsc. 183 (1996) 89.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. J.C.H. Spence, High-Resolution Tranmission Electron Microscopy, 3rd ed. (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003).

    Google Scholar 

  46. D.C. Martin and E.L. Thomas, Polymer 36 (1995) 1743.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. D.C. Martin, J. Chen, J. Yang, L.F. Drummy and C. Kuebel, J. Polym. Sci. B. Polym. Phys. 43 (2005) 1749.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. S. Kumar and W.W. Adams, Polymer 31 (1990) 15.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. W.G. Hartley, Proc. Roy. Microsc. Soc. 9 (1974) 167.

    Google Scholar 

  50. W.A. Shurcliff and S.S. Ballard, Polarized Light (Van Nostrand, New York, 1964).

    Google Scholar 

  51. G.N. Ramachandran and S. Ramaseshan, in Handbuch der Physik, edited by S. Flugge (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1961).

    Google Scholar 

  52. C.W. Mason, Handbook of Chemical Microscopy (Wiley, New York, 1983).

    Google Scholar 

  53. D.A. Hemsley, Ed. Applied Polymer Light Microscopy (Elsevier Applied Science, London, New York, 1989).

    Google Scholar 

  54. N.H. Hartshorne and A. Stuart, Practical Optical Crystallography, 2nd ed. (Elsevier, New York, 1969).

    Google Scholar 

  55. F.D. Bloss, Optical Crystallography (Mineral Society of America. 1999).

    Google Scholar 

  56. J.G. Delly, The Michel-Lévy Interference Color Chart—Microscopy’s Magical Color Key. (2003) Available at http://www.modernmicroscopy.com. Accessed October 2006.

  57. M.M. Swann and J.M. Mitchison, J. Exp. Biol. 27 (1950) 226.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. N.H. Hartshorne, Sci. Prog. 50 (1962) 11.

    Google Scholar 

  59. L. Reimer and P.W. Hawkes, Scanning Electron Microscopy, Physics of Image Formation and Microanalysis (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1998).

    Google Scholar 

  60. L. Reimer, Image Formation in Low-Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy (SPIE, Bellingham, WA, 1993).

    Google Scholar 

  61. J.H. Butler, D.C. Joy, G.F. Bradley and S.J. Krause, Polymer 36 (1995) 1761.

    Google Scholar 

  62. D.L. Vezie, E.L. Thomas and W.W. Adams, Polymer 36 (1995) 1781.

    Google Scholar 

  63. R. Gauvin, K. Robertson, P. Horny, A.M. Elwazri and S. Yue, JOM 58 (2006) 20.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. J.E. Barth and P. Kruit, Optik 101 (1996) 101.

    Google Scholar 

  65. S.K. Chapman, Scanning Microscopy 13 (1999) 141.

    Google Scholar 

  66. H.A. Bethe, Ann. Phys. 5 (1930) 325.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. K. Kanaya and S. Okayama, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 5 (1972) 43.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. K.F.J. Heinrich, in Proc. 4th Intl. Conf. on X-ray Optics and Microanal., edited by R. Castaing, P. Deschamps and J. Philbert (Hermann, Paris, 1966).

    Google Scholar 

  69. K.F.J. Heinrich and D.E. Newbury, Electron Probe Quantitation (Plenum Press, New York, 1991).

    Google Scholar 

  70. D.B. Wittry, in X-ray Optics and Microanalysis, 4th Intl. Cong., edited by R. Castaing, P. Deschamps and J. Philibert (Herman, Paris, 1966).

    Google Scholar 

  71. D.C. Joy, Scanning 11 (1989) 1.

    Google Scholar 

  72. D.C. Joy and C.S. Joy, Microsc. Microanal. 4 (1998) 475.

    PubMed  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. J.B. Pawley, J. Microsc. 136 (1984) 45.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. J.J. Hren, J.I. Goldstein and D.C. Joy, Introduction to Analytical Microscopy (Plenum, New York, 1979).

    Google Scholar 

  75. D. Drouin, CASINO. Available at http://www.gel.usherbrooke.ca/casino/. Accessed July 2006.

  76. D.C. Joy and J.B. Pawley, Ultramicroscopy 47 (1992) 80.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. J. Chang, S. Krause and R. Gorur, Proc. XIIth Intl. Congr. Electr. Micr., edited by L.D. Peachey and D.B. Williams (San Francisco Press, Inc., 1990), p. 1108.

    Google Scholar 

  78. C.W. Price and P.L. McCarthy, Scanning 10 (1988) 29.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. P.B. Himelfarb and K.B. Labat, Scanning 12 (1990) 148.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. B. Volbert and L. Reimer, Scanning Electron Microscopy 4, (1980) 1.

    Google Scholar 

  81. M. Brunner and R. Schmid, Scanning Microsc. 1 (1987) 1501.

    Google Scholar 

  82. L. Reimer and B. Volbert, Scanning 2 (1979) 238.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. M.T. Postek, W.J. Keery and N.V. Frederick, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 61 (1990) 1648.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  84. H. Jaksch, M. Steigerwald, V. Drexel and H. Bihr, Microsc. Microanal. 9 (2003) 106.

    Google Scholar 

  85. G.D. Danilatos and R. Postle, Scanning Electron Microsc. Part 1 (1982) 1.

    Google Scholar 

  86. G.D. Danilatos, Adv. Electronics Electron Phys. 71 (1988) 109.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. V. Robinson, J. Comp. Assisted Microsc. 5 (1992) 247.

    Google Scholar 

  88. D.J. Stokes, Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. London A 361 (2003) 2771.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. G.D. Danilatos, Microsc. Res. Techn. 25 (1993) 354.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. D.E. Newbury, J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. 107 (2002) 567.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. R. Durkin and J.S. Shah, J. Microsc. 169 (1993) 33.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. B.J. Griffin and C. Nockolds, in Proc. 14th Intl. Conf. on Electron Microscopy, edited by H. Calderon (Institute of Physics, London, 1998), p. 359.

    Google Scholar 

  93. R.A. Rapp, Pure Appl. Chem. 56 (1984) 1715.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. K. Ramani, C.J. Hoyle and N.C. Parasnis, ASME Mater. Div. Publ. MD 46 (1993) 633.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. D.J. Stokes, Adv. Eng. Mater. 3 (2001) 126.

    Google Scholar 

  96. N. Franz, M.O. Ahlers, A. Abdullah and H. Hohenberg, J. Mater. Sci. 41 (2006) 4561.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. S. Mehta, in Proc. SPE Annu. Tech. Conf. Exhib. Pi (Production Operations and Engineering pt 2) (1991) 445.

    Google Scholar 

  98. H.-M. Choi and H.-J. Kwon, Text. Res. J. 63 (1993) 211.

    Google Scholar 

  99. B. Anczykowski, J.P. Cleveland, D. Kruger, V. Elings and H. Fuchs, Appl. Phys. A 66 (1998) S885.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  100. T.R. Rodriguez and R. Garcia, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82 (2003) 4821.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. A. Schirmeisen, B. Anczykowski and H. Fuchs, in Applied Scanning Probe Methods, edited by B. Bushan, H. Fuchs and S. Hosaka (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2003), p. 3.

    Google Scholar 

  102. A. Humphris, A. Round and M. Miles, Surf. Sci. 491 (2001) 468.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. T. Sulcheck, R. Hsieh, J. Adams, G. Yaralioglu, S. Minne, C. Quate, J. Cleveland, A. Atalar and D. Adderton, Appl. Phys. Lett. 76 (2000) 1473.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  104. M. Tortonese, R. Barrett and C. Quate, Appl. Phys. Lett. 62 (1993) 834.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. R. Erlandsson, G. McClelland, C. Mate and S. Chiang, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 6 (1988) 266.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. A. Ruf, M. Abraham, J. Diebel, W. Ehrfeld, P. Guenther, M. Lacher, K. Mayr and J. Reinhardt, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 15 (1997) 579.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. S. Alexander, L. Hellemans, O. Marti, J. Schneir, V. Elings, P. Hansma, M. Longmire and J. Gurley, J. Appl. Phys. 65 (1989) 164.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. S. Magonov and D. Reneker, Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 27 (1997) 175.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. R. Colton, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 22 (2004) 1609.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. D. Chernoff and S. Magonov, in Comprehensive Desk Reference of Polymer Characterization and Analysis, edited by R. Brady (Oxford University Press, New York, 2003).

    Google Scholar 

  111. G. Binnig, C. Gerber and C.F. Quate, Phys. Rev. Lett. 56 (1986) 930.

    PubMed  ADS  Google Scholar 

  112. J. Israelachvilli, Surface and Intermolecular Forces, 2nd Edition: With Applications to Biological and Colloidal Systems (Academic Press, New York, 1992).

    Google Scholar 

  113. J.B. Pethica and P. Sutton, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 6 (1988) 2400.

    Google Scholar 

  114. N.A. Burnham, R.J. Colton and H.M. Pollock, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 9 (1991) 2548.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. S.P. Jarvis, H. Yamada, S.-I. Yamamoto and J.B. Pethica, Nature 384 (1996) 248.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  116. W. Heinz and J. Hoh, in Trends Biotechnol. 17 (1999) 143.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. H.-J. Butt, B. Cappella and M. Kappl, Surf. Sci. Rep. 59 (2005) 1.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. K. Feldman, G. Hahner and N. Spencer, in Microstructure and Microtribology of Polymer Surfaces, edited by V. Tsukruk and K.J. Wahl (American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 2000), p. 272.

    Google Scholar 

  119. G. Meyers, B. DeKoven and J. Seitz, Langmuir 8 (1992) 2330.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. C. Mate, G. McClelland, R. Erlandsson and S. Chiang, Phys. Rev. Lett. 59 (1987) 1942.

    PubMed  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. R. Carpick and M. Salmeron, Chem. Rev. 97 (1997) 1163.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. M. Paige, Polymer 44 (2003) 6345.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. S. Breakspear, J. Smith, T. Nevell and J. Tsibouklis, Surf. Interface Anal. 36 (2004) 1330.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. K. Feldman, T. Tervoort, P. Smith and N. Spencer, Langmuir 14 (1998) 372.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. G.J. Vancso and H. Schonherr, in Microstructure and Microtribology of Polymer Surfaces, edited by V. Tsukruk and K.J. Wahl (American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 2000), p. 317.

    Google Scholar 

  126. R. Piner and C. Mirkin, Langmuir 13 (1997) 6864.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. M. Motomatsu, H.-Y. Nie, W. Mizutani and H. Tokumoto, Thin Solid Films 273 (1996) 304.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. G. Haugstad, W. Gladfelter, E. Weberg, R. Weberg and R. Jones, Tribol. Lett. 1 (1995) 253.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. R. Cain, S. Biggs and N. Page, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 227 (2000) 55.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. R. Piner and R. Ruoff, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 73 (2002) 3392.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. P. Maivald, H.-J. Butt, S. Gould, C. Prater, B. Drake and J. Gurley, Nanotechnology 2 (1991) 103.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  132. B. Nysten, C. Meerman and E. Tomasetti, in Microstructure and Microtribology of Polymer Surfaces, edited by V. Tsukruk and K.J. Wahl (American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 2000), p. 304.

    Google Scholar 

  133. A. Galuska, R. Polter and K. McElrath, Surf. Interface Anal. 25 (1997) 418.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. A.L. Weisenhorn, M. Khorsandi, M. Kasas, V. Gotzos and H.-J. Butt, Nanotechnology 4 (1993) 106.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. B. Beake, G. Leggett and P. Shipway, Surf. Interface Anal. 27 (1999) 1084.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. H. Schonherr, C. Feng, N. Tomczak and G.J. Vancso, Macromol. Symp. 230 (2005) 149.

    Google Scholar 

  137. G. Willing, T. Ibrahim, F. Etzler and R. Neuman, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 226 (2000) 185.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. F. Arce, R. Avci, I. Beech, K. Cooksey and B. Wigglesworth-Cooksey, J. Chem. Phys. 119 (2003) 1671.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Y. Jiao and T. Schaffer, Langmuir 20 (2004) 10038.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Q. Zhong, D. Inniss, K. Kjoller and V. Elings, Surf. Sci. Lett. 290 (1993) L688.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. S. Magonov, in Applied Scanning Probe Methods, edited by B. Bushan, H. Fuchs and S. Hosaka (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2003), p. 207.

    Google Scholar 

  142. W. Han, S. Lindsay and T. Jing, Appl. Phys. Lett. 69 (1996) 4111.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. R. Garcia and R. Perez, Surf. Sci. Rep. 47 (2002) 197.

    MATH  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. G. Bar, Y. Thoman and M.-H. Wangbo, Langmuir 14 (1998) 1219.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. A. Pfau, A. Janke and W. Heckman, Surf. Interface Anal. 27 (1999) 410.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. G. Bar and G. Meyers, MRS Bull. July (2004) 464.

    Google Scholar 

  147. P. Gleyzes, P. Kuo and C. Boccara, Appl. Phys. Lett. 58 (1991) 2989.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. R. Garcia and A.S. Paulo, Phys. Rev. B 60 (1999) 4961.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. G. Haugstad and R.R. Jones, Ultramicroscopy 76 (1999) 77.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. J.P. Cleveland, B. Anczykowski, A.E. Schmid and V.B. Elings, Appl. Phys. Lett. 72 (1998) 2613.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. B. Anczykowski, B. Gotsmann, H. Fuchs, J.P. Cleveland and V.B. Elings, Appl. Surf. Sci. 140 (1999) 376.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. G. Bar, M. Ganter, R. Brandsch, L. Delineau and M.-H. Whangbo, Langmuir 16 (2000) 5702.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. T.R. Albrecht, P. Grutter, D. Home and D. Rugar, J. Appl. Phys. 69 (1991) 668.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  154. F.J. Giessibl, Rev. Mod. Phys. 75 (2003) 949.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. S. Tanaka, B. Grevin, P. Rannou, H. Suziki and S. Mashiko, Thin Solid Films 499 (2006) 168.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. M. Brun, S. Decossas, F. Triozon, R. Rannou and B. Grevin, Appl. Phys. Lett. 87 (2005) 133101.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  157. A. Schirmeisen, D. Weiner and H. Fuchs, Surf. Sci. 545 (2003) 155.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Y. Martin, D.A. Abraham and H.K. Wickramasinghe, Appl. Phys. Lett. 52 (1987) 1103.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  159. Y. Martin and H.K. Wickramasinghe, Appl. Phys. Lett. 50 (1987) 1456.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  160. N. Yerina and S. Magonov, Rubber Chem. Technol. 76 (2003) 846.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. A.V. Krayev and R.V. Talroze, Polymer 45 (2004) 8195.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. M. Meincken, L.J. Balk and R.D. Sanderson, Macromol. Mater. Eng. 286 (2001) 412.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. P. West and N. Starostina, Microsc. Today 11 (2003) 20.

    Google Scholar 

  164. A. Mendez-Vilas, M.L. Gonzalez-Martin and M.J. Nuevo, Ultramicroscopy 92 (2002) 243.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. ASTM E2382-04, Guide to Scanner and Tip Related Artifacts in Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Atomic Force Microscopy, in ASTM Annual Book of Standards, Vol. 03.06 (2004).

    Google Scholar 

  166. R. Howland, in Atomic Force Microscopy/Scanning Tunneling Microscopy, edited by S.H. Cohen, M.T. Bray and M.L. Lightbody (Plenum Press, New York, 1994), p. 347.

    Google Scholar 

  167. S.M. Hues, C.F. Draper, K.P. Lee and R.J. Colton, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 65 (1994) 1561.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. J. Fu, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66 (1995) 3785.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. J.E. Griffith and D.A. Grigg, J. Appl. Phys. 74 (1993) R83.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  170. D. Snevity and J. Vancso, Langmuir 9 (1993) 2253.

    Google Scholar 

  171. X. Tian, N. Xi, Z. Dong and Y. Wang, Ultramicroscopy 105 (2005) 336.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. ASTM E1813-96, Standard Practice for Measuring and Reporting Probe Tip Shape in Scanning Probe Microscopy, in ASTM Annual Book of Standards, Vol. 03.06 (2002).

    Google Scholar 

  173. K.L. Westra, A.W. Mitchell and D.J. Thomson, J. Appl. Phys. 74 (1993) 3608.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. T. Thundat, X.Y. Zheng, S.L. Sharp, D.P. Allison, R.J. Warmack, D.C. Joy and T.L. Ferrell, Scanning Microsc. 6 (1992) 903.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. J. Vesenka, M. Guthold, C. Tang, D. Keller, E. Delaine and C. Bustamante, Ultramicroscopy 42–44 (1992) 1243.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. D. Keller, Surf. Sci. 235 (1991) 353.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  177. G.S. Pingali and R.C. Jain, Proc. SPIE Int. Soc. Opt. Eng. 1823 (1992) 151.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  178. U.D. Schwarz, H. Haefke, P. Reimann and H.-J. Guntherodt, J. Microsc. 173 (1994) 183.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. J. Vesenka, S. Manne, R. Giberson, T. Marsh and E. Henderson, Biophys. J. 65 (1993) 992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. S. Xu and M.F. Arnsdorf, J. Microsc. 173 (1994) 199.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. C. Odin and J.P. Aime, Surf. Sci. 317 (1994) 321.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. M.J. Allen, N.V. Hud, M. Balooch, R.J. Tench, W.J. Siekhaus and R. Balhorn, Ultramicroscopy 42 (1992) 1095.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. J.S. Villarrubia, in Applied Scanning Probe Methods, edited by B. Bushan, H. Fuchs and S. Hosaka (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2003), p. 147.

    Google Scholar 

  184. J.S. Villarrubia, Surf. Sci. 321 (1994) 287.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  185. J.S. Villarrubia, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 14 (1996) 1518.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. J.S. Villarrubia, J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. 102 (1997) 425.

    Google Scholar 

  187. S. Dongmo, M. Troyon, P. Vautrot, E. Delain and N. Bonnet, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 14 (1996) 1552.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. S. Dongmo, J.S. Villarrubia, S.N. Jones, T.B. Renegar, M.T. Postek and J.F. Song, AIP Conference Proc. 449 (1998) 843.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. L.S. Dongmo, J.S. Villarrubia, S.N. Jones, T.B. Renegar, M.T. Postek and J.F. Song, Ultramicroscopy 85 (2000) 141.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. P. Grutter, W. Zimmermann-Edling and D. Brodbeck, Appl. Phys. Lett. 60 (1992) 2741.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. H.Y. Nie, M.J. Walzak and N.S. McIntyre, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 73 (2002) 3831.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. G. Bar, Y. Thoman, R. Brandsh and H.-J. Cantow, Langmuir 13 (1997).

    Google Scholar 

  193. H.-Y. Nie and N.S. McIntyre, Langmuir 17 (2001) 432.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. G. Hughes, Radiation Chemistry (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1973).

    Google Scholar 

  195. M. Dole, Ed. The Radiation Chemistry of Macromolecules (Academic Press, New York, 1973).

    Google Scholar 

  196. R.L. Clough, S.W. Shalaby and Eds. Radiation Effects on Polymers, ACS Symposium Series, 475 (ACS, Washington, DC, 1991).

    Google Scholar 

  197. A. Charlesby, Atomic Radiation and Polymers (Pergamon, Oxford, 1960).

    Google Scholar 

  198. A. Chapiro, Radiation Chemistry of Polymeric Systems (Interscience, New York, 1962).

    Google Scholar 

  199. S. Okamura, Recent Trends in Radiation Polymer Chemistry (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1993).

    Google Scholar 

  200. G.F. Bahr, F.B. Johnson and E. Zeitler, Lab. Invest. 14 (1965) 1115.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. B.M. Siegel, D.R. Beaman and Eds. Physical Aspects of Electron Microscopy and Microbeam Analysis (Wiley, New York, 1975).

    Google Scholar 

  202. M.S. Isaacson, in Principles and Techniques of Electron Microscopy, edited by M. Hayat (Van-Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1977).

    Google Scholar 

  203. D.T. Grubb, in Developments in Crystalline Polymers, edited by D.C. Bassett (Applied Science, London & New York, 1982).

    Google Scholar 

  204. E.L. Thomas, in Structure of Crystalline Polymers, edited by I.H. Hall (Applied Science, London, 1984).

    Google Scholar 

  205. P. Alexander and A. Charlesby, Nature 173 (1954) 578.

    PubMed  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. H. Kiho and P. Ingram, Makromol. Chem. 118 (1968) 45.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  207. P.B. Hirsch, A. Howie, R.B. Nicholson, D.W. Pashley and M.J. Whelan, Electron Microscopy of Thin Crystals (Butterworths, London, 1965).

    Google Scholar 

  208. B. Gale and K.F. Hale, Br. J. Appl. Phys. 12 (1961) 115.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  209. J. Ling, Br. J. Appl. Phys. 18 (1967) 991.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  210. L.G. Pittaway, Br. J. Appl. Phys. 15 (1964) 967.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  211. Y. Talmon and E.L. Thomas, J. Microsc. 111 (1977) 151.

    Google Scholar 

  212. H. Kohl, H. Rose and H. Schnabl, Optik 58 (1981) 11.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. V.E. Cosslett. Proc. Europ. Conf. on Electron Microscopy, edited by A.L. Houwink and B.J. Spit (Nederlandse Vereniging voor Electronenmikroskopie, Delft, 1960).

    Google Scholar 

  214. R. Freemen and K.R. Leonard, J. Microsc. 122 (1981) 275.

    Google Scholar 

  215. J.W. Heavens, A. Keller, J.M. Pope and D.M. Rowell J. Mater. Sci. 5 (1970) 53.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  216. M.S. Isaacson, Ultramicroscopy 4 (1979) 193.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  217. R.F. Egerton, Ultramicroscopy 5 (1980) 521.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  218. R.F. Egerton, J. Microsc. 126 (1982) 96.

    Google Scholar 

  219. B.D. Lauterwasser and E.J. Kramer, Philos. Mag. A39 (1979) 469.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  220. D. Vesely, Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 (1996) 1586.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  221. K. Kobayashi and K. Sakaoku, Lab. Invest. 14 (1965) 1097.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  222. D.T. Grubb, J. Phys. E Sci. Instrum. 4 (1971) 222.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  223. D.L. Dorset and F. Zemlin, Ultramicroscopy 17 (1985) 229.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  224. D.T. Grubb and G.W. Groves, Philos. Mag. 24 (1971) 815.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. F.P. Price, J. Polym. Sci. 37 (1959) 71.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  226. J. Dlugosz and A. Keller, J. Appl. Phys. 39 (1968) 5776.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  227. D.T. Grubb and A. Keller, J. Mater. Sci. 7 (1972) 822.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  228. D.T. Grubb, A. Keller and G.W. Groves, J. Mater. Sci. 7 (1972) 131.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. E.H. Andrews, Proc. Roy. Soc. A270 (1962) 232.

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  230. C.G. Cannon and P.H. Harris, J. Macromol. Sci. Phys. B3 (1969) 357.

    Google Scholar 

  231. J. Dlugosz, D.T. Grubb, A. Keller and M.B. Rhodes, J. Mater. Sci. 7 (1972) 142.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  232. J.E. Breedon, J.F. Jackson, M.J. Marcinkowski and M.E. Taylor, J. Mater. Sci. 8 (1973) 1071.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. D. Fotheringham and B. Paker, J. Mater. Sci. 11 (1976) 979.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. S. Bandyopadhy and H.R. Brown, Polymer 19 (1978) 589.

    Google Scholar 

  235. Y. Chen and J.B. Pawley, in Multidimensional Microscopy edited by P.C. Cheng, T.H. Lin, W.L. Wu and J.L. Wu (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1994).

    Google Scholar 

  236. C.P. Royall, B.L. Thiel and A.M. Donald, J. Microsc. 204 (2001) 185.

    PubMed  CAS  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  237. E.L. Thomas and D.G. Ast, Polymer 15 (1974) 37.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  238. R.M. Glaeser, J. Ultrastruct. Res. 36 (1976) 466.

    Google Scholar 

  239. L. Yin, Polymer 44 (2003) 6489.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  240. D.L. Misell, J. Phys D Appl. Phys. 10 (1977) 1085.

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  241. R.C. Williams and H.W. Fischer, J. Mol. Biol. 52 (1970) 121.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2008 Linda C. Sawyer, David T. Grubb

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

(2008). Image Formation in the Microscope. In: Polymer Microscopy. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-72628-1_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation