Skip to main content

Obstetrics and Gynecology Patients: Menstrual Cycle, Pregnancy, and Postpartum-Related Psychiatric Disorders

  • Chapter
Handbook of Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry
  • 1383 Accesses

A 40-year-old woman who is 15 weeks pregnant and has gestational diabetes was referred for psychiatric evaluation for increasing anxiety and depression. During the psychiatric interview the patient reported feeling very depressed, anxious, restless, confused, and somewhat agitated for the last several weeks, worried that something bad was going to happen to her fetus and her three older children. She also reported racing thoughts, palpitation, feeling very hot and sweaty, and weight loss. The patient denied any past psychiatric history or treatment and denied any alcohol or illicit substance use. On further workup, the patient had a thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) of <0.004. She was diagnosed with thyrotoxicosis, and treatment started with propylthiouracil. The patient was also started on an antidepressant and a low dose of antipsychotic to control her agitation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Ahoka A, Kaukoranta J, et al. Estrogen deficiency in severe PPD: Successful treatment with sublingual physiologic 17 beta estradiol: a preliminary study. J Clin Psych 2001;62:5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altshuler LL, Cohen L, Szuba MP, et al. Pharmacologic management of psychiatric illness in pregnancy: dilemmas and guidelines. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153:592–606.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Appleby L. Suicide during pregnancy and in the first postnatal year. Br Med J 1991;302:137–140.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arnold LM, Gender differences on bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Clin North Am. 2003 Sep;26(3):595–620.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailara KM, et al. Decreased brain tryptophan availability as a partial determinant of postpartum blues. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2005;31(3):407–413; Epub November 21, 2005.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brinsmead M, Smith R, Singh B, Lewin T, Owens P. Peripartum concentrations of beta endorphin and cortisol and maternal mood states. Aust NZ J Obstet Gynaecol 1985;25(3):194–197.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chambers C, Johnson K, et al. Birth outcomes in pregnant women taking fluoxetine. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1010–1015.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chambers CD, Hernandez-Diaz S, Van Marter LJ, Werler MM, Louik C, Jones KL, Mitchell AA. Selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors and risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. New Engl J Med 2006;354:579–587.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chaudron L, Pies R. The relationship between postpartum psychosis and bipolar disorder: a review. J Clin Psychiatry 2003;64:1284–1292.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti D, Rogosch F, Toth S. Maternal depressive disorder and contextual risk: contributions to the development of attachment insecurity and behavior problems in toddlerhood. Dev Psychopathol 1998;10:283–300.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen L, Nonacs RM, et al. Relapse of depression during pregnancy following antidepressant discontinuation: a preliminary prospective study. Arch Womens Mental Health 2004;7;217–221.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen L, Sichel D, Robertson L, et al. Postpartum prophylaxis for women with bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:1641–1645.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper P, Murray L. Course and recurrence of postnatal depression. Br J Psychiatry 1995;166:191–195.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cox JL, Holden JM, Sagovsky R. Detection of postnatal depression: development of the 10–item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression scale. Br J Psychiatry 1987;150:782–786.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dennis C. The effect of peer support on PPD: A pilot randomized controlled trial. Can J Psychiatry 2003;48(2):115–124.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ebbesen F, Joergensen A, et al. Neonatal hypoglycemia and withdrawal symptoms after exposure in utero to valproate. Arch Dis Child (Fetal Neonate Ed) 2000;83:F124–F129.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Einarson A, Bonari L, et al. A multicentre prospective controlled study to determine the safety of trazadone and nafazadone use during pregnancy. Can J Psychiatry 2003;48:106–110.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Einarson A, Fatoye B, et al. Pregnancy outcome following gestational exposure to venlafaxine: a multicenter prospective controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:1728–1730.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Epperson N, Czarkowski K, et al. Maternal sertraline treatment and serotonin transport in breast feeding mother-infant pairs. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:1631–1637.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Essex M, Klein M, et al. Maternal stress beginning in infancy may sensitize children to later stress exposure: effects on cortisol and behavior. Biol Psychiatry 2002;52:776–784.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gardiner S, Kristensen J, et al. Transfer of olanzapine into breast milk, calculation of infant drug dose, and effect on breast fed infants. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:1428–1431.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gotlib I, et al. Prevalence rates and demographic characteristics associated with depression in pregnancy and the postpartum. J Consult Clin Psychol 1989;57(2):269–274.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gregoire AJP, Kumar R. Transdermal estrogen for treatment of severe postpartum depression. Lancet 1996;347:930–933.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hale T, Shum S, Grossberg M. Fluoxetine toxicity in a breastfed infant. Clin Pediatr 2001;40:681–684.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harris B, Othman S, Davies JA, et al. Association between postpartum thyroid dysfunction and thyroid antibodies and depression. Br Med J 1992;305(6846):152–156.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hendrick V, Smith L, et al. Weight gain in breastfed infants of mothers taking antidepressant medication. J Clin Psychiatry 2003;64:410–412.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hendrick V, et al. Postpartum and nonpostpartum depression: Differences in presentation and response to pharmacologic treatment. Depression Anxiety 2000;11:66–72.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heikkinen, et al. Citalopram in pregnancy and lactation. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2002;72(2):184–191.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Henshaw C, Foreman D, Cox J. Postnatal blues: a risk factor for postnatal depression. J Psychosom Obstet Gynecol 2004;25:267–272.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heron J, O’Connor T, et al. The course of anxiety and depression through pregnancy and the postpartum in a community sample. J Affect Disord 2004;80:65–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jager-Roman E, Deichi A, et al. Fetal growth, major malformations and minor anomalies in infants born to women receiving valproic acid. J Pediatr 1986;108:997–1004.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jones KL, Lacro R, et al. Pattern of malformations in the children of women treated with carbamazepine during pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1989;320:1661–1666.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrie T, Hofmeyr GJ, Jager M, et al. A double blind randomized placebo controlled trial of postnatal northisterone enanthate: the effect on postnatal depression and serum hormones. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998;105:1082–1090.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee DTS, Wong CK, et al. Screening psychiatric morbidity after miscarriage: application of the 30–item GHQ and EPDS. Psychosom Med 1997;59:207–210.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marzuk P, Tardiff D, et al. Lower risk of suicide during pregnancy. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:122–123.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McElhatton P. The effects of Benzodiazepine use during pregnancy and lactation. Reprod Toxicol 1994;8(6):461–475.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mckenna K, Koren G, Tetelbaum M, et al. Pregnancy outcome of women using atypical antipsychotic drugs: A prospective comparative study. J Clin Psychiatry 2005;66:444–449.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miller L. Use of electroconvulsive therapy during pregnancy. Hosp Commun Psychiatry 1994;45(5):444–450.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nulman I, Rovet J. Child development following exposure to TCA or fluoxetine throughout fetal life: a prospective controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 2002;159:1889–1895.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nulman I, Rovet J, et al. Neurodevelopment of children exposed in utero to antidepressant drugs. N Engl J Med 1997;336:258–262.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connors T, et al. Maternal antenatal anxiety and behavioral/emotional problems in children: a test of a programming hypothesis. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2003;44(7):1025–1036.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Hara M, Schelchte J, Lewis D. Prospective study of postpartum blues, biologic and psychosocial factors. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:801–806.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Hara M, Stuart S, Gorman L, Wenzel A. Efficacy of Interpersonal psychotherapy for postpartum depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000;57:1039–1045.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robling SA, Paykel ES, et al. Long term outcome of severe puerperal psychiatric illness: a 23 year follow up study. Psychol Med 2000;30:1263–1271.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roy-Byrne P, Dager S, et al. Relapse and rebound following discontinuation of benzo treatment of panic attacks: Alprazolam versus Diazepam. Am J Psychiatry 1989;146;7:860–865.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Safra M, Oakley G. Association between cleft lip with or without cleft palate and prenatal exposure to diazepam. Lancet 1975 Sept 13;478–480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schimidt P et al. A longitudinal evaluation of the relationship between reproductive status and mood in perimenupausal women. Am J Psych 2004;161:2238–2244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schou M. What happened later to the lithium babies? A follow-up study of children born without malformations. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1976;54(3):193–197.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sherer D, D’Amico, et al. Recurrent mild abruption placentae occurring immediately after repeated ECT in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991;165;652–653.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spinelli M. Interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed antepartum women: a pilot study. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:1028–1030.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart DE. Prophylactic lithium in postpartum affective psychosis. J Nerv Mental Dis 1988;176(8):485–489.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Teixeira JM, et al. Association between maternal anxiety in pregnancy and increased uterine artery resistance index: a cohort study. Br Med J 1999;318(7193):1288–1289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thisted E, Ebbesen F. Malformations, withdrawal manifestations and hypoglycemia after exposure to valproate in utero. Arch Dis Child 1993;69:288–291.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Viguera A, Nonacs R. Risk of recurrence of bipolar disorder in pregnant and nonpregnant women after discontinuing lithium maintenance. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:179–184.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weinstock L, Cohen L, et al. Obstetrical and neonatal outcome following clonazepam use during pregnancy: a case series. Psychother Psychosom 2001;70:158–162.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshida K, Smith B, et al. Fluoxetine in breast milk and developmental outcomes of breast-fed infants. Br J Psychiatry 1998;172:175–179.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zeskind PS, Stephens L. Maternal SSRI use during pregnancy and newborn neurobehavior. Pediatrics 2004;113(2):368–375.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zuckerman B, et al. Depressive symptoms during pregnancy: relationship to poor health behaviors. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;160:1107–1111.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zuckerman B, et al. Maternal depressive symptoms during pregnancy and newborn irritability. J Dev Behav Pediatr 1990;11:190–194.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Bibliography

  • Casper R, Fleisher B, et al. Follow up of children of depressed mothers exposed or not exposed to antidepressant drugs during pregnancy. J Pediatr 2003;142:402–408.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chambers C, Anderson P, Thomas R, et al. Weight gain in infants breast fed by mothers who take fluoxetine; Pediatrics Nov 1999;104(5):1–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chaudron L, Jefferson J. Mood stabilizers during breastfeeding: a review. J Clin Psychiatry 2000;61:79–90.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chaudron L, Szilagyi PG, Kitzman H, et al. Detection of postpartum depressive symptoms by screening at well-child visits. Pediatrics 2004;113(3):551–558.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen L, Friedman JM, Jefferson J, et al. A reevaluation of risk of in utero exposure to lithium. JAMA 1994;271:146–150.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen L, Heller V, et al. Birth outcomes following prenatal exposure to fluoxetine. Biol Psychiatry 2000;48:996–1000.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen L, Nonacs R. Mood and Anxiety Disorders During Pregnancy and Postpartum. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edhborg M, Lundh W, et al. The parent-child relationship in the context of maternal depressive mood. Arch Womens Mental Health 2003;6:211–216.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ernst C, Goldberg J. The reproductive safety profile of mood stabilizers, atypical antipsychotics and broad spectrum psychotropics. J Clin Psychiatry 2002;63(suppl 4):42–55.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Llewellyn A, Stowe Z. Psychotropic medications in lactation. J Clin Psychiatry 1998:59(suppl 2):41–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Llewellyn A, Stowe Z, Strader J. The use of lithium and management of women with bipolar disorder during pregnancy and lactation. J Clin Psychiatry 1998;59(suppl 6):57–64.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miller L. Postpartum Mood Disorder. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Hara M. Social support, life events and depression during pregnancy and puerperium. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986;43:569–573.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quinlan J, Hill A. Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy. Am Fam Physician 2003;68(1):121–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapkin A. A review of treatment of premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2003;28:39–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robertson E, Grace S, et al. Antenatal risk factors for postpartum depression: a synthesis of recent literature. General Hosp Psychiatry 2004;26:289–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steiner M, Dunn E, Born L. Hormones and mood: from menarche to menopause and beyond. J Affect Disord 2003;74:67–83.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thapar AK, Thapar A. Psychological sequelae of miscarriage: a controlled study using general health questionnaire and the hospital anxiety and depression scale. Br J Gen Pract 1992;42(356):94–96.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wisner K, Perel J, Peindl K, et al. Prevention of postpartum depression: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:1290–1292.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Nair, B. (2007). Obstetrics and Gynecology Patients: Menstrual Cycle, Pregnancy, and Postpartum-Related Psychiatric Disorders. In: Handbook of Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-69255-5_23

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-69255-5_23

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-387-69253-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-0-387-69255-5

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics