Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Fabrication of Photoelectrode Materials

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Electrochemistry for the Environment

Abstract

In this chapter, a number of methods for the fabrication of film-structured photoelectrode materials were selectively reviewed. Sol–gel methods have long been employed for film fabrications. Direct assembly of particulate photocatalysts was also shortly discussed. The emphasis was placed on the development of photoelectrodes with enhanced photocatalytic performance due to either light absorption enhancement or increase in the separation of photogenerated charge carriers. Photocatalysts with enhanced light absorption were successfully developed by various doping techniques. And those with increase in charge carrier separations were made to have special crystalline structures such as nanorod/nanotubular arrays, interfacial region between coupled semiconductor components, and metal/semiconductor heterojunctions etc. Other structural characteristics such as high surface area and porosity were also achieved by various fabrication techniques as will be illustrated in this chapter.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 139.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adachi, M., Murata, Y., Okada, I. and Yoshikawa, S. (2003). Formation of titania nanotubes and applications for dye-sensitized solar cells. J. Electrochem. Soc. 150(8), G488–G493.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • An, H. J., Jang, S. R., Vittal, R., Lee, J. and Kim, K. J. (2005). Cationic surfactant promoted reductive electrodeposition of nanocrystalline anatase TiO2 for application to dye-sensitized solar cells. Electrochimica Acta 50(13), 2713–2718.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, C. and Bard, A. J. (1995). Improved photocatalyst of TiO2 ∕ SiO2 prepared by a sol–gel synthesis. J. Phys. Chem. 99(24), 9882–9885.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, M. A., Gieselmann, M. J. and Xu, Q. Y. (1988). Titania and alumina ceramic membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 39(3), 243–258.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Andersson, M., Birkedal, H., Franklin, N. R., Ostomel, T., Boettcher, S., Palmqvist, A. E. C. and Stucky, G. D. (2005). Ag/AgCl-loaded ordered mesoporous anatase for photocatalysis. Chem. Mater. 17(6), 1409–1415.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anpo, M. (2000). Use of visible light. Second-generation titanium oxide photocatalysts prepared by the application of an advanced metal ion-implantation method. Pure Appl. Chem. 72(9), 1787–1792.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anpo, M., Ichihashi, Y., Takeuchi, M. and Yamashita, H. (1998). Design of unique titanium oxide photocatalysts by an advanced metal ion-implantation method and photocatalytic reactions under visible light irradiation. Res. Chem. Intermed. 24(2), 143–149.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anpo, M., Ichihashi, Y., Takeuchi, M. and Yamashita, H. (1999). Design and development of unique titanium oxide photocatalysts capable of operating under visible light irradiation by an advanced metal ion-implantation method. Sci. Technol. Catal. 1998. 121, 305–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anpo, M., Kishiguchi, S., Ichihashi, Y., Takeuchi, M., Yamashita, H., Ikeue, K., Morin, B., Davidson, A. and Che, M. (2001). The design and development of second-generation titanium oxide photocatalysts able to operate under visible light irradiation by applying a metal ion-implantation method. Res. Chem. Intermed. 27(4–5), 459–467.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Antonelli, D. M. and Ying, J. Y. (1995). Synthesis of hexagonally packed mesoporous TiO2 by a modified sol–gel method. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 34(18), 2014–2017.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Babelon, P., Dequiedt, A. S., Mostefa-Sba, H., Bourgeois, S., Sibillot, P. and Sacilotti, M. (1998). SEM and XPS studies of titanium dioxide thin films grown by MOCVD. Thin Solid Films 322(1–2), 63–67.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Backman, U., Auvinen, A. and Jokiniemi, J. K. (2005). Deposition of nanostructured titania films by particle-assisted MOCVD. Surf. Coat. Technol. 192(1), 81–87.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Badawy, W. A. (1997). Preparation, electrochemical, photoelectrochemical and solid-state characteristics of indium-incorporated TiO2 thin films for solar cell fabrication. J. Mater. Sci. 32(18), 4979–4984.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bamwenda, G. R., Tsubota, S., Nakamura, T. and Haruta, M. (1995). Photoassisted hydrogen-production from a water–ethanol solution – A comparison of activities of Au – TiO2 and Pt – TiO2. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A-Chem. 89(2), 177–189.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bandyopadhyay, M., Birkner, A., van den Berg, M. W. E., Klementiev, K. V., Schmidt, W., Grunert, W. and Gies, H. (2005). Synthesis and characterization of mesoporous MCM-48 containing TiO2 nanoparticles. Chem. Mater. 17(15), 3820–3829.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bavykin, D. V., Lapkin, A. A., Plucinski, P. K., Torrente-Murciano, L., Friedrich, J. M. and Walsh, F. C. (2006). Deposition of Pt, Pd, Ru and Au on the surfaces of titanate nanotubes. Top. Catal. 39(3–4), 151–160.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, K. M., Sasaki, T. and Koshizaki, N. (1999). Characterization of nanocomposite materials prepared via laser ablation of Pt ∕ TiO2 bi-combinant targets. Chem. Phys. Lett. 301(3–4), 336–342.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boccuzzi, F., Chiorino, A., Tsubota, S. and Haruta, M. (1996). FTIR study of carbon monoxide oxidation and scrambling at room temperature over gold supported on ZnO and TiO2. J. Phys. Chem. 100(9), 3625–3631.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bond, G. C. and Thompson, D. T. (1999). Catalysis by gold. Catal. Rev. Sci. Eng. 41(3–4), 319–388.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bougrine, A., El Hichou, A., Addou, M., Ebothe, J., Kachouane, A. and Troyon, M. (2003). Structural, optical and cathodoluminescence characteristics of undoped and tin-doped ZnO thin films prepared by spray pyrolysis. Mater. Chem. Phys. 80(2), 438–445.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bowker, M., Millard, L., Greaves, J., James, D. and Soares, J. (2004). Photocatalysis by Au nanoparticles: Reforming of methanol. Gold Bull. 37(3–4), 170–173.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Butterfield, I. M., Christensen, P. A., Hamnett, A., Shaw, K. E., Walker, G. M., Walker, S. A. and Howarth, C. R. (1997). Applied studies on immobilized titanium dioxide films as catalysts for the photoelectrochemical detoxification of water. J. Appl. Electrochem. 27(4), 385–395.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Centeno, M. A., Carrizosa, I. and Odriozola, J. A. (2003). Deposition-precipitation method to obtain supported gold catalysts: dependence of the acid–base properties of the support exemplified in the system TiO2 − TiOxNy − TiN. Appl. Catal. A-Gen. 246(2), 365–372.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chan, S. C. and Barteau, M. A. (2005). Preparation of highly uniform Ag ∕ TiO2 and Au ∕ TiO2 supported nanoparticle catalysts by photodeposition. Langmuir 21(12), 5588–5595.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Che, G. L., Lakshmi, B. B., Fisher, E. R. and Martin, C. R. (1998). Carbon nanotubule membranes for electrochemical energy storage and production. Nature 393(6683), 346–349.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, W., Hong, S. J., Chang, Y. S. and Cho, Y. (2000). Photocatalytic degradation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins on TiO2 film under UV or solar light irradiation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 34(22), 4810–4815.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, K. S., Lichtenegger, H. C., Stucky, G. D. and McFarland, E. W. (2002). Electrochemical synthesis of nanostructured ZnO films utilizing self-assembly of surfactant molecules at solid–liquid interfaces. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 124(42), 12402–12403.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, S. Y., Mamak, M., Coombs, N., Chopra, N. and Ozin, G. A. (2004). Thermally stable two-dimensional hexagonal mesoporous nanocrystalline anatase, meso-nc-TiO2: Bulk and crack-free thin film morphologies. Adv. Funct. Mater. 14(4), 335–344.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, S. Y., Mamak, M., Speakman, S., Chopra, N. and Ozin, G. A. (2005). Evolution of nanocrystallinity in periodic mesoporous anatase thin films. Small 1(2), 226–232.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Conde-Gallardo, A., Guerrero, M., Fragoso, R. and Castillo, N. (2006). Gas-phase diffusion and surface reaction as limiting mechanisms in the aerosol-assisted chemical vapor deposition of TiO2 films from titanium diisopropoxide. J. Mater. Res. 21(12), 3205–3209.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cozzoli, P. D., Comparelli, R., Fanizza, E., Curri, M. L., Agostiano, A. and Laub, D. (2004). Photocatalytic synthesis of silver nanoparticles stabilized by TiO2 nanorods: A semiconductor/metal nanocomposite in homogeneous nonpolar solution. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126(12), 3868–3879.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cui, H., Shen, H. S., Gao, Y. M., Dwight, K. and Wold, A. (1993). Photocatalytic properties of titanium (IV) oxide thin-films prepared by spin coating and spray pyrolysis. Mater. Res. Bull. 28(3), 195–201.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • de Tacconi, N. R., Chenthamarakshan, C. R., Rajeshwar, K., Pauporte, T. and Lincot, D. (2003). Pulsed electrodeposition of WO3 – TiO2 composite films. Electrochem. Commun. 5(3), 220–224.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Decher, G. (1997). Fuzzy nanoassemblies: Toward layered polymeric multicomposites. Science 277(5330), 1232–1237.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Decher, G., Hong, J. D. and Schmitt, J. (1992). Buildup of ultrathin multilayer films by a self-assembly process. 3. Consecutively alternating adsorption of anionic and cationic polyelectrolytes on charged surfaces. Thin Solid Films 210(1–2), 831–835.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dimitratos, N., Villa, A., Bianchi, C. L., Prati, L. and Makkee, M. (2006). Gold on titania: Effect of preparation method in the liquid phase oxidation. Appl. Catal. A-Gen. 311, 185–192.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Di Paola, A., Marci, G., Palmisano, L., Schiavello, M., Uosaki, K., Ikeda, S. and Ohtani, B. (2002). Preparation of polycrystalline TiO2 photocatalysts impregnated with various transition metal ions: Characterization and photocatalytic activity for the degradation of 4-nitrophenol. J. Phys. Chem. B 106(3), 637–645.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dumitriu, D., Bally, A. R., Ballif, C., Hones, P., Schmid, P. E., Sanjines, R., Levy, F. and Parvulescu, V. I. (2000). Photocatalytic degradation of phenol by TiO2 thin films prepared by sputtering. Appl. Catal. B-Environ. 25(2–3), 83–92.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Espinos, J. P., Fernandez, A., Caballero, A., Jimenez, V. M., Sanchez-Lopez, J. C., Contreras, L., Leinen, D. and GonzalezElipe, A. R. (1997). Ion-beam-induced CVD: An alternative method of thin film preparation. Chem. Vapor Deposit. 3(4), 219–226.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, P., Pemble, M. E. and Sheel, D. W. (2006). Precursor-directed control of crystalline type in atmospheric pressure CVD growth of TiO2 on stainless steel. Chem. Mater. 18(24), 5750–5755.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feng, S. H. and Xu, R. R. (2001). New materials in hydrothermal synthesis. Accounts Chem. Res. 34(3), 239–247.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feng, X. J., Macak, J. M. and Schmuki, P. (2007). Robust self-organization of oxide nanotubes over a wide pH range. Chem. Mater. 19(7), 1534–1536.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gauthier, V., Bourgeois, S., Sibillot, P., Maglione, M. and Sacilotti, M. (1999). Growth and characterization of AP-MOCVD iron doped titanium dioxide thin films. Thin Solid Films 340(1–2), 175–182.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ghicov, A., Macak, J. M., Tsuchiya, H., Kunze, J., Haeublein, V., Kleber, S. and Schmuki, P. (2006). TiO2 nanotube layers: Dose effects during nitrogen doping by ion implantation. Chem. Phys. Lett. 419(4–6), 426–429.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Göß, D., Frach, P., Zywitzki, O., Modes, T., Klinkenberg, S. and Gottfried, C. (2005). Photocatalytic titanium dioxide thin films prepared by reactive pulse magnetron sputtering at low temperature. Surf. Coat. Technol. 200(1–4), 967–971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grosso, D., Babonneau, F., Sanchez, C., Soler-Illia, G., Crepaldi, E. L., Albouy, P. A., Amenitsch, H., Balkenende, A. R. and Brunet-Bruneau, A. (2003). A first insight in the mechanisms involved in the self-assembly of 2D-hexagonal templated SiO2 and TiO2 mesostructured films during dip-coating. J. Sol–Gel Sci. Technol. 26(1–3), 561–565.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guo, M., Diao, P. and Cai, S. M. (2005a). Hydrothermal growth of perpendicularly oriented ZnO nanorod array film and its photoelectrochemical properties. Appl. Surf. Sci. 249(1–4), 71–75.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guo, M., Diao, P., Wang, X. D. and Cai, S. M. (2005b). The effect of hydrothermal growth temperature on preparation and photoelectrochemical performance of ZnO nanorod array films. J. Solid State Chem. 178(10), 3210–3215.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Halary, E., Benvenuti, G., Wagner, F. and Hoffmann, P. (2000). Light induced chemical vapour deposition of titanium oxide thin films at room temperature. Appl. Surf. Sci. 154, 146–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halary-Wagner, E., Wagner, F. and Hoffmann, P. (2004). Titanium dioxide thin-film deposition on polymer substrate by light induced chemical vapor deposition. J. Electrochem. Soc. 151(9), C571–C576.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Halary-Wagner, E., Bret, T. and Hoffmann, P. (2005). Light-induced CVD of titanium dioxide thin films I: Kinetics of deposition. Chem. Vapor Deposit. 11(1), 21–28.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hao, W. C., Pan, F. and Wang, T. M. (2005). Photocatalytic activity TiO2 granular films prepared by layer-by-layer self-assembly method. J. Mater. Sci. 40(5), 1251–1253.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haruta, M., Tsubota, S., Kobayashi, T., Kageyama, H., Genet, M. J. and Delmon, B. (1993). Low-temperature oxidation of Co over gold supported on TiO2, α-Fe2O3, and Co3O4. J. Catal. 144(1), 175–192.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haruta, M., Uphade, B. S., Tsubota, S. and Miyamoto, A. (1998). Selective oxidation of propylene over gold deposited on titanium-based oxides. Res. Chem. Intermed. 24(3), 329–336.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • He, C., Xiong, Y., Chen, J., Zha, C. H. and Zhu, X. H. (2003). Photoelectrochemical performance of Ag – TiO2 ∕ ITO film and photoelectrocatalytic activity towards the oxidation of organic pollutants. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A-Chem. 157(1), 71–79.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • He, J. X., Yang, P. J., Sato, H., Umemura, Y. and Yamagishi, A. (2004). Effects of Ag-photodeposition on photocurrent of an ITO electrode modified by a hybrid film of TiO2 nanosheets. J. Electroanal. Chem. 566(1), 227–233.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hidaka, H., Asai, Y., Zhao, J. C., Nohara, K., Pelizzetti, E. and Serpone, N. (1995). Photoelectrochemical decomposition of surfactants on a TiO2 ∕ TCO particulate film electrode assembly. J. Phys. Chem. 99(20), 8244–8248.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hidaka, H., Nagaoka, H., Nohara, K., Shimura, T., Horikoshi, S., Zhao, J. and Serpone, N. (1996). A mechanistic study of the photoelectrochemical oxidation of organic compounds on a TiO2 ∕ TCO particulate film electrode assembly. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A-Chem. 98(1–2), 73–78.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hidaka, H., Ajisaka, K., Horikoshi, S., Oyama, T., Takeuchi, K., Zhao, J. and Serpone, N. (2001). Comparative assessment of the efficiency of TiO2 ∕ OTE thin film electrodes fabricated by three deposition methods – Photoelectrochemical degradation of the DBS anionic surfactant. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A-Chem. 138(2), 185–192.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hosono, E., Fujihara, S., Kakiuchi, K. and Imai, H. (2004). Growth of submicrometer-scale rectangular parallelepiped rutile TiO2 films in aqueous TiCl3 solutions under hydrothermal conditions. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126(25), 7790–7791.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hou, X. G., Hao, F. H., Fan, B., Gu, X. N., Wu, X. Y. and Liu, A. D. (2006). Modification of TiO2 photocatalytic films by V+ ion implantation. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. B-Beam Interact. Mater. Atoms 243(1), 99–102.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hsu, S. W., Yang, T. S., Chen, T. K. and Wong, M. S. (2007). Ion-assisted electron-beam evaporation of carbon-doped titanium oxide films as visible-light photocatalyst. Thin Solid Films 515(7–8), 3521–3526.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hyett, G., Green, M. and Parkin, I. P. (2006). X-ray diffraction area mapping of preferred orientation and phase change in TiO2 thin films deposited by chemical vapor deposition. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128(37), 12147–12155.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ichinose, I., Senzu, H. and Kunitake, T. (1997). A surface sol–gel process of TiO2 and other metal oxide films with molecular precision. Chem. Mater. 9(6), 1296–1298.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ilican, S., Caglar, Y., Caglar, M. and Yakuphanoglu, F. (2006). Electrical conductivity, optical and structural properties of indium-doped ZnO nanofiber thin film deposited by spray pyrolysis method. Phys. E 35(1), 131–138.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Inoue, N., Yuasa, H. and Okoshi, M. (2002). TiO2 thin films prepared by PLD for photocatalytic applications. Appl. Surf. Sci. 197, 393–397.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ishizuka, S. O., Kato, S., Maruyama, T. and Akimoto, K. (2001). Nitrogen doping into Cu2O thin films deposited by reactive radio-frequency magnetron sputtering. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Part 1-Regular Papers Short Notes & Review Papers 40(4B), 2765–2768.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jin, S. and Shiraishi, F. (2004). Photocatalytic activities enhanced for decompositions of organic compounds over metal-photodepositing titanium dioxide. Chem. Eng. J. 97(2–3), 203–211.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jing, L. Q., Li, X. Q., Li, S. D., Wang, B. Q., Xin, B. F., Fu, H. G., Wang, D. J. and Cai, W. M. (2005). XPS and SPS studies on nanometer Au/TiO2 photocatalyst. Chin. J. Catal. 26(3), 189–193.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jung, K. Y. and Park, S. B. (2000). Enhanced photoactivity of silica-embedded titania particles prepared by sol–gel process for the decomposition of trichloroethylene. Appl. Catal. B-Environ. 25(4), 249–256.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kanai, N., Nuida, T., Ueta, K., Hashimoto, K., Watanabe, T. and Ohsaki, H. (2004). Photocatalytic efficiency of TiO2 ∕ SnO2 thin film stacks prepared by DC magnetron sputtering. Vacuum 74(3–4), 723–727.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karches, M., Morstein, M., von Rohr, P., Pozzo, R. L., Giombi, J. L. and Baltanas, M. A. (2002). Plasma-CVD-coated glass beads as photocatalyst for water decontamination. Catal. Today 72(3–4), 267–279.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kavan, L., O’Regan, B., Kay, A. and Grätzel, M. (1993). Preparation of TiO2 (anatase) films on electrodes by anodic oxidative hydrolysis of TiCl3. J. Electroanal. Chem. 346(1–2), 291–307.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khoudiakov, M., Gupta, M. C. and Deevi, S. (2005). Au ∕ Fe2O3 nanocatalysts for CO oxidation: A comparative study of deposition – precipitation and coprecipitation techniques. Appl. Catal. A-Gen. 291(1–2), 151–161.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kikuchi, H., Kitano, M., Takeuchi, M., Matsuoka, M., Anpo, M. and Kamat, P. V. (2006). Extending the photoresponse of TiO2 to the visible light region: Photoelectrochemical behavior of TiO2 thin films prepared by the radio frequency magnetron sputtering deposition method. J. Phys. Chem. B 110(11), 5537–5541.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, D. H. and Anderson, M. A. (1994). Photoelectrocatalytic degradation of formic-acid using a porous TiO2 thin-film electrode. Environ. Sci. Technol. 28(3), 479–483.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, T. H. and Yoon, K. H. (1991). Photoeffects in SnO2 film electrodes deposited by spray pyrolysis. J. Appl. Phys. 70(5), 2739–2744.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, K. H., Park, K. C. and Ma, D. Y. (1997). Structural, electrical and optical properties of aluminum doped zinc oxide films prepared by radio frequency magnetron sputtering. J. Appl. Phys. 81(12), 7764–7772.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, J. H., Fujita, S. and Shiratori, S. (2006). Fabrication and characterization of TiO2 thin film prepared by a layer-by-layer self-assembly method. Thin Solid Films 499(1–2), 83–89.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kitano, M., Takeuchi, M., Matsuoka, M., Thomas, J. M. and Anpo, M. (2005). Preparation of visible light-responsive TiO2 thin film photocatalysts by an RF magnetron sputtering deposition method and their photocatalytic reactivity. Chem. Lett. 34(4), 616–617.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kitano, M., Funatsu, K., Matsuoka, M., Ueshima, M. and Anpo, M. (2006). Preparation of nitrogen-substituted TiO2 thin film photocatalysts by the radio frequency magnetron sputtering deposition method and their photocatalytic reactivity under visible light irradiation. J. Phys. Chem. B 110(50), 25266–25272.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kiyonaga, T., Mitsui, T., Torikoshi, M., Takekawa, M., Soejima, T. and Tada, H. (2006). Ultrafast photosynthetic reduction of elemental sulfur by Au nanoparticle-loaded TiO2. J. Phys. Chem. B 110(22), 10771–10778.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lakshmi, B. B., Dorhout, P. K. and Martin, C. R. (1997a). Sol–gel template synthesis of semiconductor nanostructures. Chem. Mater. 9(3), 857–862.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lakshmi, B. B., Patrissi, C. J. and Martin, C. R. (1997b). Sol–gel template synthesis of semiconductor oxide micro- and nanostructures. Chem. Mater. 9(11), 2544–2550.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lam, R. C. W., Leung, M. K. H., Leung, D. Y. C., Vrijinoed, L. L. P., Yam, W. C. and Ng, S. P. (2007). Visible-light-assisted photocatalytic degradation of gaseous formaldehyde by parallel-plate reactor coated with Cr ion-implanted TiO2 thin film. Solar Energy Mater. Solar Cells 91(1), 54–61.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, H. Y., Park, Y. H. and Ko, K. H. (2000). Correlation between surface morphology and hydrophilic/hydrophobic conversion of MOCVD-TiO2 films. Langmuir 16(18), 7289–7293.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S. B., Mitchell, D. T., Trofin, L., Nevanen, T. K., Soderlund, H. and Martin, C. R. (2002). Antibody-based bio-nanotube membranes for enantiomeric drug separations. Science 296(5576), 2198–2200.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, M. K., Huang, J. J. and Wu, T. S. (2005). Electrical characteristics improvement of oxygen-annealed MOCVD-TiO2 films. Semicond. Sci. Technol. 20(6), 519–523.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li, D., Haneda, H., Hishita, S., Ohashi, N. and Labhsetwar, N. K. (2005a). Fluorine-doped TiO2 powders prepared by spray pyrolysis and their improved photocatalytic activity for decomposition of gas-phase acetaldehyde. J. Fluorine Chem. 126(1), 69–77.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li, P., Liu, J. Y., Nag, N. and Croziers, P. A. (2005b). Atomic-scale study of in situ metal nanoparticle synthesis in a Ni ∕ TiO2 system. J. Phys. Chem. B 109(29), 13883–13890.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li, W. C., Comotti, M. and Schuth, F. (2006). Highly reproducible syntheses of active Au ∕ TiO2 catalysts for CO oxidation by deposition-precipitation or impregnation. J. Catal. 237(1), 190–196.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Limmer, S. J., Seraji, S., Forbess, M. J., Wu, Y., Chou, T. P., Nguyen, C. and Cao, G. Z. (2001). Electrophoretic growth of lead zirconate titanate nanorods. Adv. Mater. 13(16), 1269–1272.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Limmer, S. J., Seraji, S., Wu, Y., Chou, T. P., Nguyen, C. and Cao, G. Z. (2002). Template-based growth of various oxide nanorods by sol–gel electrophoresis. Adv. Funct. Mater. 12(1), 59–64.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Limmer, S. J., Cruz, S. V. and Cao, G. Z. (2004). Films and nanorods of transparent conducting oxide ITO by a citric acid sol route. Appl. Phys. A-Mater. Sci. Process. 79(3), 421–424.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lindgren, T., Mwabora, J. M., Avendano, E., Jonsson, J., Hoel, A., Granqvist, C. G. and Lindquist, S. E. (2003). Photoelectrochemical and optical properties of nitrogen doped titanium dioxide films prepared by reactive DC magnetron sputtering. J. Phys. Chem. B 107(24), 5709–5716.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, B. and Zeng, H. C. (2003). Hydrothermal synthesis of ZnO nanorods in the diameter regime of 50 nm. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125(15), 4430–4431.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, B. S., Zhao, X. J., Zhang, N. Z., Zhao, Q. N., He, X. and Feng, J. Y. (2005). Photocatalytic mechanism of TiO2 – CeO2 films prepared by magnetron sputtering under UV and visible light. Surf. Sci. 595(1–3), 203–211.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lo Nigro, R., Toro, R., Malandrino, G. and Fragala, I. L. (2003). Heteroepitaxial growth of nanostructured cerium dioxide thin films by MOCVD on a (001) TiO2 substrate. Chem. Mater. 15(7), 1434–1440.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luo, J. and Hepel, M. (2001). Photoelectrochemical degradation of naphthol blue black diazo dye on WO3 film electrode. Electrochim. Acta 46(19), 2913–2922.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Macak, J. M., Tsuchiya, H., Taveira, L., Aldabergerova, S. and Schmuki, P. (2005). Smooth anodic TiO2 nanotubes. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 44(45), 7463–7465.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Manivannan, A., Seehra, M. S., Majumder, S. B. and Katiyar, R. S. (2003). Magnetism of Co-doped titania thin films prepared by spray pyrolysis. Appl. Phys. Lett. 83(1), 111–113.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. R. (1995). Template synthesis of electronically conductive polymer nanostructures. Accounts Chem. Res. 28(2), 61–68.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matsuda, A., Higashi, Y., Tadanaga, K. and Tatsumisago, M. (2006). Hot-water treatment of sol–gel derived SiO2 – TiO2 microparticles and application to electrophoretic deposition for thick films. J. Mater. Sci. 41(24), 8101–8108.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matsuoka, M., Kitano, M., Takeuchi, M., Anpo, M. and Thomas, J. M. (2005). Photocatalytic water splitting on visible light-responsive TiO2 thin films prepared by a RF magnetron sputtering deposition method. Top. Catal. 35(3–4), 305–310.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McMurray, T. A., Byrne, J. A., Dunlop, P. S. M. and McAdams, E. T. (2005). Photocatalytic and electrochemically assisted photocatalytic oxidation of formic acid on TiO2 films under UVA and UVB irradiation. J. Appl. Electrochem. 35(7–8), 723–731.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meldrum, A., Haglund, R. F., Boatner, L. A. and White, C. W. (2001). Nanocomposite materials formed by ion implantation. Adv. Mater. 13(19), 1431–1444.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miao, Z., Xu, D. S., Ouyang, J. H., Guo, G. L., Zhao, X. S. and Tang, Y. Q. (2002). Electrochemically induced sol–gel preparation of single-crystalline TiO2 nanowires. Nano Lett. 2(7), 717–720.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Modes, T., Scheffel, B., Metzner, C., Zywitzki, O. and Reinhold, E. (2005). Structure and properties of titanium oxide layers deposited by reactive plasma activated electron beam evaporation. Surf. Coat. Technol. 200(1–4), 306–309.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moon, S. W., Lee, G. D., Park, S. S. and Hong, S. S. (2004). Catalytic combustion of chlorobenzene over V2O5 ∕ TiO2 catalysts prepared by the precipitation-deposition method. React. Kinet. Catal. Lett. 82(2), 303–310.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mor, G. K., Shankar, K., Paulose, M., Varghese, O. K. and Grimes, C. A. (2006). Use of highly-ordered TiO2 nanotube arrays in dye-sensitized solar cells. Nano Lett. 6(2), 215–218.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murakami, T. N., Kijitori, Y., Kawashima, N. and Miyasaka, T. (2004). Low temperature preparation of mesoporous TiO2 films for efficient dye-sensitized photoelectrode by chemical vapor deposition combined with UV light irradiation. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A-Chem. 164(1–3), 187–191.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nasr, C., Kamat, P. V. and Hotchandani, S. (1998). Photoelectrochemistry of composite semiconductor thin films. Photosensitization of the SnO2 ∕ TiO2 coupled system with a ruthenium polypyridyl complex. J. Phys. Chem. B 102(49), 10047–10056.

    Google Scholar 

  • Natarajan, C. and Nogami, G. (1996). Cathodic electrodeposition of nanocrystalline titanium dioxide thin films. J. Electrochem. Soc. 143(5), 1547–1550.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Natarajan, C., Fukunaga, N. and Nogami, G. (1998). Titanium dioxide thin film deposited by spray pyrolysis of aqueous solution. Thin Solid Films 322(1–2), 6–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nazeeruddin, M. K., Kay, A., Rodicio, I., Humphrybaker, R., Muller, E., Liska, P., Vlachopoulos, N. and Grätzel, M. (1993). Conversion of light to electricity by cis-X2bis(2,2′-bipyridyl-4,4′-dicarboxylate)ruthenium(II) charge-transfer sensitizers (X = Cl−, Br−, I−, CN−, and SCN−) on nanocrystalline TiO2 electrodes. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 115(14), 6382–6390.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oekermann, T., Yoshida, T., Schlettwein, D., Sugiura, T. and Minoura, H. (2001). Photoelectrochemical properties of ZnO/tetrasulfophthalocyanine hybrid thin films prepared by electrochemical self-assembly. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 3(16), 3387–3392.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oh, S. H., Kim, D. J., Hahn, S. H. and Kim, E. J. (2003). Comparison of optical and photocatalytic properties of TiO2 thin films prepared by electron-beam evaporation and sol–gel dip-coating. Mater. Lett. 57(26–27), 4151–4155.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ohno, S., Sato, D., Kon, M., Song, P. K., Yoshikawa, M., Suzuki, K., Frach, P. and Shigesato, Y. (2003). Plasma emission control of reactive sputtering process in mid-frequency mode with dual cathodes to deposit photocatalytic TiO2 films. Thin Solid Films 445(2), 207–212.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ohyama, M., Kozuka, H. and Yoko, T. (1997). Sol–gel preparation of ZnO films with extremely preferred orientation along (002) plane from zinc acetate solution. Thin Solid Films 306(1), 78–85.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Okuya, M., Prokudina, N. A., Mushika, K. and Kaneko, S. (1999). TiO2 thin films synthesized by the spray pyrolysis deposition (SPD) technique. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 19(6–7), 903–906.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Okuyama, H., Honma, K. and Ohno, S. (1999). Photocatalytic activity of ultrafine TiO2 particles synthesized by an RF plasma CVD. J. Jpn. Inst. Met. 63(1), 74–81.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ortega, J. M., Martinez, A. I., Acosta, D. R. and Magana, C. R. (2006). Structural and electrochemical studies of WO3 films deposited by pulsed spray pyrolysis. Solar Energy Mater. Solar Cells 90(15), 2471–2479.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pal, B., Sharon, M. and Nogami, G. (1999). Preparation and characterization of TiO2 ∕ Fe2O3 binary mixed oxides and its photocatalytic properties. Mater. Chem. Phys. 59(3), 254–261.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palgrave, R. G. and Parkin, I. P. (2006). Aerosol assisted chemical vapor deposition using nanoparticle precursors: A route to nanocomposite thin films. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128(5), 1587–1597.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papp, J., Soled, S., Dwight, K. and Wold, A. (1994). Surface-acidity and photocatalytic activity of TiO2, WO3 ∕ TiO2, and MoO3 ∕ TiO2 photocatalysts. Chem. Mater. 6(4), 496–500.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paraguay, F., Estrada, W., Acosta, D. R., Andrade, E. and Miki-Yoshida, M. (1999). Growth, structure and optical characterization of high quality ZnO thin films obtained by spray pyrolysis. Thin Solid Films 350(1–2), 192–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paulose, M., Shankar, K., Yoriya, S., Prakasam, H. E., Varghese, O. K., Mor, G. K., Latempa, T. A., Fitzgerald, A. and Grimes, C. A. (2006). Anodic growth of highly ordered TiO2 nanotube arrays to 134 μ m in length. J. Phys. Chem. B 110(33), 16179–16184.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peng, B., Jungmann, G., Jager, C., Haarer, D., Schmidt, H. W. and Thelakkat, M. (2004). Systematic investigation of the role of compact TiO2 layer in solid state dye-sensitized TiO2 solar cells. Coord. Chem. Rev. 248(13–14), 1479–1489.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peulon, S. and Lincot, D. (1996). Cathodic electrodeposition from aqueous solution of dense or open-structured zinc oxide films. Adv. Mater. 8(2), 166–170.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peulon, S. and Lincot, D. (1998). Mechanistic study of cathodic electrodeposition of zinc oxide and zinc hydroxychloride films from oxygenated aqueous zinc chloride solutions. J. Electrochem. Soc. 145(3), 864–874.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prakasam, H. E., Varghese, O. K., Paulose, M., Mor, G. K. and Grimes, C. A. (2006). Synthesis and photoelectrochemical properties of nanoporous iron (III) oxide by potentiostatic anodization. Nanotechnology 17(17), 4285–4291.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quan, X., Yang, S. G., Ruan, X. L. and Zhao, H. M. (2005). Preparation of titania nanotubes and their environmental applications as electrode. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39(10), 3770–3775.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reddy, B. M., Chowdhury, B. and Smirniotis, P. G. (2001). An XPS study of the dispersion of MoO3 on TiO2 – ZrO2, TiO2 – SiO2, TiO2 – Al2O3, SiO2 – ZrO2, and SiO2 – TiO2 – ZrO2 mixed oxides. Appl. Catal. A-Gen. 211(1), 19–30.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rensmo, H., Keis, K., Lindstrom, H., Sodergren, S., Solbrand, A., Hagfeldt, A., Lindquist, S. E., Wang, L. N. and Muhammed, M. (1997). High light-to-energy conversion efficiencies for solar cells based on nanostructured ZnO electrodes. J. Phys. Chem. B 101(14), 2598–2601.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Santato, C., Odziemkowski, M., Ulmann, M. and Augustynski, J. (2001). Crystallographically oriented mesoporous WO3 films: Synthesis, characterization, and applications. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123(43), 10639–10649.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sarkar, P. and Nicholson, P. S. (1996). Electrophoretic deposition (EPD): Mechanisms, kinetics, and application to ceramics. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 79(8), 1987–2002.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sayari, A., Liu, P., Kruk, M. and Jaroniec, M. (1997). Characterization of large-pore MCM-41 molecular sieves obtained via hydrothermal restructuring. Chem. Mater. 9(11), 2499–2506.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shah, S. I., Li, W., Huang, C. P., Jung, O. and Ni, C. (2002). Study of Nd3 +, Pd2 +, Pt4 +, and Fe3 + dopant effect on photoreactivity of TiO2 nanoparticles. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 99, 6482–6486.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shang, J., Yao, W. Q., Zhu, Y. F. and Wu, N. Z. (2004). Structure and photocatalytic performances of glass ∕ SnO2 ∕ TiO2 interface composite film. Appl. Catal. A-Gen. 257(1), 25–32.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shankar, K., Mor, G. K., Prakasam, H. E., Yoriya, S., Paulose, M., Varghese, O. K. and Grimes, C. A. (2007). Highly-ordered TiO2 nanotube arrays up to 220 μm in length: Use in water photoelectrolysis and dye-sensitized solar cells. Nanotechnology 18(6), 11.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shchukin, D. G. and Caruso, R. A. (2003). Inorganic macroporous films from preformed nanoparticles and membrane templates: Synthesis and investigation of photocatalytic and photoelectrochemical properties. Adv. Funct. Mater. 13(10), 789–794.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Soejima, T., Tada, H., Kawahara, T. and Ito, S. (2002). Formation of Au nanoclusters on TiO2 surfaces by a two-step method consisting of Au(III)-complex chemisorption and its photoreduction. Langmuir 18(11), 4191–4194.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Soler-Illia, G., Crepaldi, E. L., Grosso, D. and Sanchez, C. (2003). Block copolymer-templated mesoporous oxides. Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 8(1), 109–126.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Somasundaram, S., Chenthamarakshan, C. R., de Tacconi, N. R., Basit, N. A. and Rajeshwar, K. (2006). Composite WO3 – TiO2 films: Pulsed electrodeposition from a mixed bath versus sequential deposition from twin baths. Electrochem. Commun. 8(4), 539–543.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Song, K. Y., Park, M. K., Kwon, Y. T., Lee, H. W., Chung, W. J. and Lee, W. I. (2001). Preparation of transparent particulate MoO3 ∕ TiO2 and WO3 ∕ TiO2 films and their photocatalytic properties. Chem. Mater. 13(7), 2349–2355.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Studenikin, S. A., Golego, N. and Cocivera, M. (1998). Fabrication of green and orange photoluminescent, undoped ZnO films using spray pyrolysis. J. Appl. Phys. 84(4), 2287–2294.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Suda, Y., Kawasaki, H., Ueda, T. and Ohshima, T. (2004). Preparation of high quality nitrogen doped TiO2 thin film as a photocatalyst using a pulsed laser deposition method. Thin Solid Films 453–54, 162–166.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Suda, Y., Kawasaki, H., Ueda, T. and Ohshima, T. (2005). Preparation of nitrogen-doped titanium oxide thin film using a PLD method as parameters of target material and nitrogen concentration ratio in nitrogen/oxygen gas mixture. Thin Solid Films 475(1–2), 337–341.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sun, K., Zhu, S., Fromknecht, R., Linker, G. and Wang, L. M. (2004). Formation of single-layered Au nanoparticles in Au ion implanted TiO2 and SrTiO3. Mater. Lett. 58(5), 547–550.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sunada, K., Kikuchi, Y., Hashimoto, K. and Fujishima, A. (1998). Bactericidal and detoxification effects of TiO2 thin film photocatalysts. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32(5), 726–728.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tada, H., Teranishi, K., Inubushi, Y. and Ito, S. (2000). Ag nanocluster loading effect on TiO2 photocatalytic reduction of bis(2-dipyridyl)disulfide to 2-mercaptopyridine by H2O. Langmuir 16(7), 3304–3309.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tada, H., Mitsui, T., Kiyonaga, T., Akita, T. and Tanaka, K. (2006). All-solid-state Z-scheme in CdS–Au–TiO2 three-component nanojunction system. Nat. Mater. 5(10), 782–786.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi, T., Nakabayashi, H., Yamada, N. and Tanabe, J. (2003). Photocatalytic properties of TiO2 ∕ WO3 bilayers deposited by reactive sputtering. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 21(4), 1409–1413.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Takeda, S., Suzuki, S., Odaka, H. and Hosono, H. (2001). Photocatalytic TiO2 thin film deposited onto glass by DC magnetron sputtering. Thin Solid Films 392(2), 338–344.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tang, Y. W., Chen, Z. G., Jia, Z. J., Zhang, L. S. and Li, J. L. (2005). Electrodeposition and characterization of nanocrystalline cuprous oxide thin films on TiO2 films. Mater. Lett. 59(4), 434–438.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tayade, R. J., Kulkarni, R. G. and Jasra, R. V. (2006). Transition metal ion impregnated mesoporous TiO2 for photocatalytic degradation of organic contaminants in water. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 45(15), 5231–5238.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Teleki, A., Pratsinis, S. E., Kalyanasundaram, K. and Gouma, P. I. (2006). Sensing of organic vapors by flame-made TiO2 nanoparticles. Sens. Actuator B-Chem. 119(2), 683–690.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Teoh, W. Y., Amal, R., Madler, L. and Pratsinis, S. E. (2007). Flame sprayed visible light-active Fe – TiO2 for photomineralisation of oxalic acid. Catal. Today 120(2), 203–213.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tesfamichael, T., Will, G. and Bell, J. (2005). Nitrogen ion implanted nanostructured titania films used in dye-sensitised solar cells and photocatalyst. Appl. Surf. Sci. 245(1–4), 172–178.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tsuge, Y., Inokuchi, K., Onozuka, K., Shingo, O., Sugi, S., Yoshikawa, M. and Shiratori, S. (2006). Fabrication of porous TiO2 films using a spongy replica prepared by layer-by-layer self-assembly method: Application to dye-sensitized solar cells. Thin Solid Films 499(1–2), 396–401.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tsuji, H., Sakai, N., Sugahara, H., Gotoh, Y. and Ishikawa, J. (2005). Silver negative-ion implantation to sol–gel TiO2 film for improving photocatalytic property under fluorescent light. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. B-Beam Interact. Mater. Atoms 237(1–2), 433–437.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tsuji, H., Sakai, N., Gotoh, Y. and Ishikawa, J. (2006). Photocatalytic properties of sol–gel titania film under fluorescent-light irradiation improved by silver negative-ion implantation. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. B-Beam Interact. Mater. Atoms 242(1–2), 129–132.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tu, M. L., Su, Y. K. and Ma, C. Y. (2006). Nitrogen-doped p-type ZnO films prepared from nitrogen gas radio-frequency magnetron sputtering. J. Appl. Phys. 100(5), 4.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Uchikoshi, T., Suzuki, T. S., Tang, F., Okuyama, H. and Sakka, Y. (2004). Crystalline-oriented TiO2 fabricated by the electrophoretic deposition in a strong magnetic field. Ceram. Int. 30(7), 1975–1978.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Bokhoven, J. A., Louis, C., Miller, J. T., Tromp, M., Safonova, O. V. and Glatzel, P. (2006). Activation of oxygen on gold/alumina catalysts: In situ high-energy-resolution fluorescence and time-resolved X-ray spectroscopy. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 45(28), 4651–4654.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Venkov, T., Fajerwerg, K., Delannoy, L., Klimev, H., Hadjiivanov, K. and Louis, C. (2006). Effect of the activation temperature on the state of gold supported on titania: An FT-IR spectroscopic study. Appl. Catal. A-Gen. 301(1), 106–114.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vinodgopal, K. and Kamat, P. V. (1995). Electrochemically assisted photocatalysis using nanocrystalline semiconductor thin-films. Solar Energy Mater. Solar Cells 38(1–4), 401–410.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Visinescu, C. M., Sanjines, R., Levy, F., Marcu, V. and Parvulescu, V. I. (2005). Tantalum doped titania photocatalysts: Preparation by dc reactive sputtering and catalytic behavior. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A-Chem. 174(2), 106–112.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vorontsov, A. V., Stoyanova, I. V., Kozlov, D. V., Simagina, V. I. and Savinov, E. N. (2000). Kinetics of the photocatalytic oxidation of gaseous acetone over platinized titanium dioxide. J. Catal. 189(2), 360–369.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, X. and Li, Y. D. (2002). Selected-control hydrothermal synthesis of α- and β-MnO2 single crystal nanowires. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 124(12), 2880–2881.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, C. M., Zhang, Y., Shutthanandan, V., Thevuthasan, S. and Duscher, G. (2004). Microstructure of precipitated au nanoclusters in TiO2. J. Appl. Phys. 95(12), 8185–8193.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, X. C., Yu, J. C., Yip, H. Y., Wu, L., Wong, P. K. and Lai, S. Y. (2005). A mesoporous Pt ∕ TiO2 nanoarchitecture with catalytic and photocatalytic functions. Chem. Eur. J. 11(10), 2997–3004.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wark, M., Tschirch, J., Bartels, O., Bahnemann, D. and Rathousky, J. (2005). Photocatalytic activity of hydrophobized mesoporous thin films of TiO2. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 84(1–3), 247–253.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weiher, N., Beesley, A. M., Tsapatsaris, N., Delannoy, L., Louis, C., van Bokhoven, J. A. and Schroeder, S. L. M. (2007). Activation of oxygen by metallic gold in Au ∕ TiO2 catalysts. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 129(8), 2240–2241.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weinberger, B. R. and Garber, R. B. (1995). Titanium-dioxide photocatalysts produced by reactive magnetron sputtering. Appl. Phys. Lett. 66(18), 2409–2411.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Won, D. J., Wang, C. H., Jang, H. K. and Choi, D. J. (2001). Effects of thermally induced anatase-to-rutile phase transition in MOCVD-grown TiO2 films on structural and optical properties. Appl. Phys. A-Mater. Sci. Process. 73(5), 595–600.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, N. L., Wang, S. Y. and Rusakova, I. A. (1999). Inhibition of crystallite growth in the sol–gel synthesis of nanocrystalline metal oxides. Science 285(5432), 1375–1377.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xie, Y. B. (2006). Photoelectrochemical reactivity of a hybrid electrode composed of polyoxophosphotungstate encapsulated in titania nanotubes. Adv. Funct. Mater. 16(14), 1823–1831.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, P., Mi, L. and Wang, P. N. (2006). Improved optical response for N-doped anatase TiO2 films prepared by pulsed laser deposition in N2 ∕ NH3 ∕ O2 mixture. J. Cryst. Growth 289(2), 433–439.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yamagishi, M., Kuriki, S., Song, P. K. and Shigesato, Y. (2003). Thin film TiO2 photocatalyst deposited by reactive magnetron sputtering. Thin Solid Films 442(1–2), 227–231.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yamashita, H., Honda, M., Harada, M., Ichihashi, Y., Anpo, M., Hirao, T., Itoh, N. and Iwamoto, N. (1998). Preparation of titanium oxide photocatalysts anchored on porous silica glass by a metal ion-implantation method and their photocatalytic reactivities for the degradation of 2-propanol diluted in water. J. Phys. Chem. B 102(52), 10707–10711.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yamashita, H., Harada, M., Misaka, J., Takeuchi, M., Ikeue, K. and Anpo, M. (2002). Degradation of propanol diluted in water under visible light irradiation using metal ion-implanted titanium dioxide photocatalysts. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A-Chem. 148(1–3), 257–261.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yamashita, H., Harada, M., Misaka, J., Takeuchi, M., Neppolian, B. and Anpo, M. (2003). Photocatalytic degradation of organic compounds diluted in water using visible light-responsive metal ion-implanted TiO2 catalysts: Fe ion-implanted TiO2. Catal. Today 84(3–4), 191–196.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, W. L. and Wolden, C. A. (2006). Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition of TiO2 thin films for dielectric applications. Thin Solid Films 515(4), 1708–1713.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, P. D., Deng, T., Zhao, D. Y., Feng, P. Y., Pine, D., Chmelka, B. F., Whitesides, G. M. and Stucky, G. D. (1998). Hierarchically ordered oxides. Science 282(5397), 2244–2246.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, T. S., Yang, M. C., Shiu, C. B., Chang, W. K. and Wong, M. S. (2006). Effect of N2 ion flux on the photocatalysis of nitrogen-doped titanium oxide films by electron-beam evaporation. Appl. Surf. Sci. 252(10), 3729–3736.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshida, T., Terada, K., Schlettwein, D., Oekermann, T., Sugiura, T. and Minoura, H. (2000). Electrochemical self-assembly of nanoporous ZnO/eosin Y thin films and their sensitized photoelectrochemical performance. Adv. Mater. 12(16), 1214–1217.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • You, X. F., Chen, F., Zhang, J. L. and Anpo, M. (2005). A novel deposition precipitation method for preparation of Ag-loaded titanium dioxide. Catal. Lett. 102(3–4), 247–250.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, J. G., Zhao, X. J. and Zhao, Q. N. (2000). Effect of surface structure on photocatalytic activity of TiO2 thin films prepared by sol–gel method. Thin Solid Films 379(1–2), 7–14.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, J. C., Wang, X. C., Wu, L., Ho, W. K., Zhang, L. Z. and Zhou, G. T. (2004). Sono- and photochemical routes for the formation of highly dispersed gold nanoclusters in mesoporous titania films. Adv. Funct. Mater. 14(12), 1178–1183.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zanella, R. and Louis, C. (2005). Influence of the conditions of thermal treatments and of storage on the size of the gold particles in Au ∕ TiO2 samples. Catal. Today 107–08, 768–777.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zanella, R., Giorgio, S., Henry, C. R. and Louis, C. (2002). Alternative methods for the preparation of gold nanoparticles supported on TiO2. J. Phys. Chem. B 106(31), 7634–7642.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zanella, R., Delannoy, L. and Louis, C. (2005). Mechanism of deposition of gold precursors onto TiO2 during the preparation by cation adsorption and deposition–precipitation with NaOH and urea. Appl. Catal. A-Gen. 291(1–2), 62–72.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, S., Zhu, Y. F. and Brodie, D. E. (1992). Photoconducting TiO2 prepared by spray pyrolysis using TiCl4. Thin Solid Films 213(2), 265–270.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, M., Bando, Y. and Wada, K. (2001). Sol–gel template preparation of TiO2 nanotubes and nanorods. J. Mater. Sci. Lett. 20(2), 167–170.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, D. S., Yoshida, T. and Minoura, H. (2002). Low temperature synthesis of porous nanocrystalline TiO2 thick film for dye-sensitized solar cells by hydrothermal crystallization. Chem. Lett. (9), 874–875.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, W. J., Li, Y., Zhu, S. L. and Wang, F. H. (2003). Fe-doped photocatalytic TiO2 film prepared by pulsed dc reactive magnetron sputtering. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 21(6), 1877–1882.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, W. J., Li, Y., Zhu, S. L. and Wang, F. H. (2004). Influence of argon flow rate on TiO2 photocatalyst film deposited by dc reactive magnetron sputtering. Surf. Coat. Technol. 182(2–3), 192–198.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, X. W., Zhou, M. H. and Lei, L. C. (2006). Co-deposition of photocatalytic Fe doped TiO2 coatings by MOCVD. Catal. Commun. 7(7), 427–431.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, D. Y., Feng, J. L., Huo, Q. S., Melosh, N., Fredrickson, G. H., Chmelka, B. F. and Stucky, G. D. (1998a). Triblock copolymer syntheses of mesoporous silica with periodic 50 to 300 angstrom pores. Science 279(5350), 548–552.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, D. Y., Huo, Q. S., Feng, J. L., Chmelka, B. F. and Stucky, G. D. (1998b). Nonionic triblock and star diblock copolymer and oligomeric surfactant syntheses of highly ordered, hydrothermally stable, mesoporous silica structures. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 120(24), 6024–6036.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, S. K., Wang, T. M., Xiang, G. and Wang, C. (2001). Photocatalytic activity of nanostructured TiO2 thin films prepared by dc magnetron sputtering method. Vacuum 62(4), 361–366.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, S. K., Wang, T. M., Hao, W. C. and Shen, R. (2002a). Improvement of photocatalytic activity of TiO2 thin film by Sn ion implantation. Vacuum 65(2), 155–159.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, S. K., Wang, T. M., Wang, C. and Xiang, G. (2002b). Photocatalytic activity study of TiO2 thin films with and without Fe ion implantation. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. B-Beam Interact. Mater. Atoms 187(4), 479–484.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, J. K., Takeuchi, M., Zhao, X. S., Ray, A. K. and Anpo, M. (2006). Photocatalytic decomposition of formic acid under visible light irradiation over V-ion-implanted TiO2 thin film photocatalysts prepared on quartz substrate by ionized cluster beam (ICB) deposition method. Catal. Lett. 106(1–2), 67–70.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, Y. C., Li, H. L., Koltypin, Y., Hacohen, Y. R. and Gedanken, A. (2001). Sonochemical synthesis of titania whiskers and nanotubes. Chem. Commun. 24, 2616–2617.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Kowloon, Hong Kong

    Guohua Chen

Authors
  1. Huanjun Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Xinyong Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Guohua Chen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Guohua Chen .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Dept. Chemical Engineering, Ecole Polytech. Fed. Lausanne, Lausanne, 1015, Switzerland

    Christos Comninellis

  2. Science and Technology, Hong Kong University of, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong/PR China

    Guohua Chen

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Zhang, H., Li, X., Chen, G. (2010). Fabrication of Photoelectrode Materials. In: Comninellis, C., Chen, G. (eds) Electrochemistry for the Environment. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-68318-8_18

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation