Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Meningococcal Infections

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Bacterial Infections of Humans

  • 2898 Accesses

The meningococcal diseases1 represent a spectrum of illness caused by Neisseria meningitidis (Table 1). Although sporadic endemic cases occur throughout the world, massive, devastating epidemics tend to reflect conditions of crowding, mobilization, and enclosed institutional populations. In recent years outbreaks have also been associated with large religious gatherings, especially the Hajj. Such outbreaks tend to be extraordinarily disruptive, especially because of the fear and fright that they induce in the affected populations. Among civilians, children are most often attacked, with mortality rates of 80–90% having been noted in some epidemics that occurred before effective therapeutic agents became available. In the past the disease was also known as “cerebral spinal fever” and “epidemic cerebral spinal meningitis,” as well as by other names. Mobilization for war, with the induction of many young men into crowded military camps, has generally been accompanied by outbreaks. Also, in recent years there has been awareness of outbreaks as well as frequent sporadic meningococcal infections among college freshmen, who also represent a mix from many diverse origins, in dormitories and other sometimes crowded living quarters on many campuses. Generalized outbreaks among the military do not arise de novo, but may reflect what is occurring in the associated civilian populations. The development of meningococcal capsular polysaccharide vaccines, and more recently conjugate meningococcal vaccines, has had a significant effect on prevention of military epidemics of meningococcal epidemics, and now its impact on civilian disease is, becoming, realized.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 259.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Vieusseux, M., Mémoire sur le maladie qui a regné à Génève au printemps de 1805, J. Med. Chir. Pharmacol. 11:163 (1805).

    Google Scholar 

  2. Danielson, L., and Mann, E., The history of a singular and very mortal disease, which lately made its appearance in Medfield, Med. Agric. Register. 1:65–69 (1806).

    Google Scholar 

  3. Weichselbaum, A., Ueber die Aetiologie der akuten Meningitis cerebrospinalis, Fortschr. Med. 5:573 (1887).

    Google Scholar 

  4. Lapeyssonnie, L., La méningite cérébro-spinale en Afrique, Bull. WHO 28(Suppl.) (1963).

    Google Scholar 

  5. Alexander, C. E., Sanborn, W. R., Cherriere, G., Crocker, W. H., Jr., Ewald, P. E., and Kay, C. R., Sulfadiazine-resistant group A Neisseria meningitidis, Science 161:1019 (1968).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Pan American Health Organization, Report of the first hemispheric meeting on meningococcal disease, Pan. Am. Health Organ. Bull. 10:163–174 (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  7. Mäkelä, P. H., Peltola, H., Käyhty, H., Jousimies, H., Pettay, O., Ruoslahti, E., Sivonen, A., and Renkonen, O.-V., Polysaccharide vaccines of group A Neisseria meningitidis and Haemophilus influenzae type b: A field trial in Finland, J. Infect. Dis. 136:S43–S50 (1977).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Gordon, M. H., Identification of the meningococcus, J. R. Army Med. Corps 24:455–458 (1915).

    Google Scholar 

  9. Branham, S. E., Serological relationships among meningococci, Bacteriol. Rev. 17:175–188 (1953).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Slaterus, K. W., Serological typing of meningococci by means of microprecipitation, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek J. Microbiol. Serol. 27:304–315 (1961).

    Google Scholar 

  11. Evans, J. R., Artenstein, M. S., and Hunter, D. H., Prevalence of meningococcal serogroups and description of three new groups, Am. J. Epidemiol. 87:643–646 (1968).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Diong, S., Ye, R., and Zhang, H., Three new serogroups of Neisseria menigitidis, J. Biol. Stand. 9:305–315 (1981).

    Google Scholar 

  13. Ashton, F. E., Ryan, A., Diena, B., and Jennings, H. J., A new serogroup (L) of Neisseria meningitidis, J. Clin. Microbiol. 17: 722–727 (1983).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Hammerschlag, M. R., and Baltimore, R. S., Infections in children due to Neisseria meningitidis serogroup 135, J. Pediatr. 92:503–504 (1978).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Taha, M. K., Achtman, M., Alonso, J. M., Greenwood, B., Ramsay, M., Fox, A., et al., Serogroup W135 meningococcal disease in Hajj pilgrims, Lancet 356:2159 (2000).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Wilder-Smith, A., Barkham, T. M., Earnest, A., and Paton, N. I., Acquisition of W135 meningococcal carriage in Hajj pilgrims and transmission to household contacts: prospective study, BMJ 325: 365–6 (2002).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Dull, P. M., Abdelwahab, J., Sacchi, C. T., Becker, M., Noble, C. A., Barnett, G. A., Kaiser, R. M., Mayer, L. W., Whitney, A. M., Schmink, S., Ajello, G. W., Dolan-Livengood, J., Stephens, D. S., Cetron, M. S., Popovic, T., and Rosenstein, N. E., Neisseria meningitidis Serogroup W-135 carriage among US travelers to the 2001 Hajj, J. Infect. Dis 191:33–39 (2005).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Cheever, F. S., The control of meningococcal meningitis by mass chemoprophylaxis with sulfadiazine, Am. J. Med. Sci. 209:74–75 (1945).

    Google Scholar 

  19. Gray, F. C., and Gear, J., Sulphapyridine, M and B 693, as a prophylactic against cerebrospinal meningitis, S. Afr. Med. J. 15:139–140 (1941).

    Google Scholar 

  20. Kuhns, D. M., Nelson, C. T., Feldman, H. A., and Kuhn, L. R., The prophylactic value of sulfadiazine in the control of meningococcic meningitis, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 123:335–339 (1943).

    Google Scholar 

  21. Phair, J. J., Schoenbach, E. B., and Root, C. M., Meningococcal carrier studies, Am. J. Public Health 34:148–154 (1944).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Millar, J. W., Siess, E. E., Feldman, H. A., Silverman, C., and Frank, P., In vivo and in vitro resistance to sulfadiazine in strains of Neisseria meningitidis, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 186:139–141 (1963).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Feldman, H. A., Sulfonamide-resistant meningococci, Annu. Rev. Med. 18:495–506 (1967).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. The Medical Letter, Inc., Preventing the spread of meningococcal disease, Med. Lett. 23:37–38 (1981).

    Google Scholar 

  25. Peltola, H., Mäkelä, H., Käyhty, H., Jousimies, H., Herva, E., Hällström, K., Sivonen, H., Renkonen, O.-V., Péttay, O., Karanko, V., Ahvonen, P., and Sarna, S., Clinical efficacy of meningococcal group A polysaccharide vaccine in children three months to five years of age, N. Engl. J. Med. 297:686–691 (1977).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Artenstein, M. S., Gold, R., Zimmerly, J. G., Wyle, F. A., Schneider, H., and Harkins, C., Prevention of meningococcal disease by group C polysaccharide vaccine, N. Engl. J. Med. 282:417–420 (1970).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Summary of notifiable diseases—United States, 2003. Published April 22, 2005, for MMWR 52(54):1–85 (2003).

    Google Scholar 

  28. Centers for Disease Control, Bacterial meningitis and meningococcemia—United States, 1978, Morbid. Mortal. Week. Rep. 28:277–279 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  29. Wenger, J. D., Hightower, A. W., Facklam, R. R., Gaventa, S., Broome, C. V., and the Bacterial Meningitis Study Group, Bacterial meningitis in the United States, 1986: Report of a multistate surveillance study, J. Infect. Dis. 162:1316–1323 (1990).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Schuchat, A., Robinson, K., Wenger, J. D., Harrison, L. H., Farley, M., Reingold, A. L., Lefkowitz, L., and Perkins, B. A., For the active surveillance team, Bacterial meningitis in the United States in 1995. N. Engl. J. Med. 337:970–976 (1997).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. http://www.hpa.org.uk/infections/topics_az/meningo/graph_meni-groupc.htmAccessed October 18, 2005.

  32. Thayer, J. D., and Martin, J. E., Jr., A selective medium for the cultivation of N. gonorrhoeae and N. meningitidis, Public Health Rep. 79:49–57 (1964).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. de Filippis I. do Nascimento, C. R., Clementino, M. B., Sereno, A. B., Rebelo, C., Souza, N. N., and Riley, L. W., Rapid detection of Neisseria meningitidis in cerebrospinal fluid by one-step polymerase chain reaction of the nspA gene, Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 51: 85–90 (2005).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Diggle, M. A., Edwards, G. F., Clarke, S. C., Automation of fluorescence-based PCR for confirmation of meningococcal disease, J. Clin. Micro. 39:4518–9 (2001).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Kaczmarski, E. B., Ragunathan, P. L., Marsh, J., Gray, S. J., and Guiver, M., Creating a national service for the diagnosis of meningococcal disease by polymerase chain reaction, Commun. Dis. Public Health. 1:54–6 (1998).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Mothershed, E. A., Sacchi, C. T., Whitney, A. M., Barnett, G. A., Ajello, G. W., Schmink, S., Mayer, L. W., Phelan, M., Taylor, T. H. Jr., Bernhardt, S. A., Rosenstein, N. E., and Popovic, T., Use of real-time PCR to resolve slide agglutination discrepancies in serogroup identification of Neisseria meningitidis, J. Clin. Micro. 42:320–8 (2004).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Cohen, R. L., and Artenstein, M. S., Hemagglutination inhibition for serogrouping Neisseria meningitidis, Appl. Microbiol. 23:289–92 (1972).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Centers for Disease Control and prevention. Prevention and control of meningococcal disease. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) MMWR. Recommendations and Reports. May 27, 2005/54(RR07);1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Jackson, L. A., and Wenger, J. D., Laboratory-based surveillance for meningococcal disease in selected areas, United States, 1989–1991, Morbid. Mortal. Week. Rep. 42:21–30 (1993).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Ruggeberg, J. U., and Pollard, A. J., Meningococcal vaccines. Paediatr. Drugs. 6:251–66 (2004).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Yakubu, D. E., Abadi, F. J., and Pennington, T. H., Molecular typing methods for Neisseria meningitidis, J. Med. Microbiol. 48: 1055–1064 (1999).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Zollinger, W. D., and Mandrell, R. E., Outer-membrane protein and lipopolysaccharide serotyping of Neisseria meningitidis by inhibition of a solid-phase radioimmunoassay, Infect. Immun. 18:424–433 (1977).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Apicella, M. A., Lipopolysaccharide-derived serotype polysaccharides from Neisseria meningitidis group B, J. Infect. Dis. 140:62–72 (1979).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Frasch, C. E., Zollinger, W. D., and Poolman, J. T., Serotype antigens of Neisseria meningitidis and a proposed scheme for designation of serotypes, Rev. Infect. Dis. 7:504–510 (1985).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Achtman, M., Clonal properties of meningococci from epidemic meningitis, Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 85(Suppl. 1):24–31 (1991).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Ashton, F. E., Mancino, L., Ryan, A. J., Poolman, J. T., Abdillahi, H., and Zollinger, W. D., Serotypes and subtypes of Neisseria meningitidis serogroup B strains associated with meningococcal disease in Canada 1977, 1989, Can. J. Microbiol. 37:613–617 (1991).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Block, C., Raz, R., Frasch, C. E., Ephros, M., Areif, Z., Talmon, Y., Rosin, D., and Bogokowsky, B., Re-emergence of meningococcal carriage on three-year follow-up of a kibbutz population after whole-community chemoprophylaxis, Eur. J. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 12:505–511 (1993).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Sáez-Nieto, J. A., Lujan, R., Berrón, S., Campos, J. A., Viñas, M., Fusté, C., Vazquez, J. A., Zhang, Q-Y., Bowler, L. D., Martinez-Suarez, V., and Spratt, B. G., Epidemiology and molecular basis of penicillin-resistant Neisseria meningitidis in Spain: A 5-year history (1985–1989), Clin. Infect. Dis. 14:394–402 (1992).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Dingle, J. H., Thomas, L., and Morton, A. R., Treatment of meningococcic meningitis and meningococcemia with sulfadiazine, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 116:2666–2668 (1941).

    Google Scholar 

  50. Feldman, H. A., Sweet, L. K., and Dowling, H. F., Sulfadiazine therapy of purluent meningitis including its use in 24 consecutive patients with meningococcic meningitis, War Med. 2:995–1007 (1942).

    Google Scholar 

  51. Cheever, F. S., Breese, B. B., and Upham, H. C., The treatment of meningococcus carriers with sulfadiazine, Ann. Intern. Med. 19: 602–608 (1943).

    Google Scholar 

  52. Devine, L. F., Johnson, D. P., Hagerman, C. R., Pierce, W. E., Rhode, S. L., III, and Peckinpaugh, R. O., The effect of minocycline on meningococcal nasopharyngeal carrier state in naval personnel, Am. J. Epidemiol. 93:337–345 (1971).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Drew, T. M., Altman , R., Black, K., and Goldfield, M., Minocycline for prophylaxis of infection with Neisseria meningitidis: High rate of side effects in recipients, J. Infect. Dis. 133:194–198 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Munford, R. S., Sussuarana de Vasconcelos, Z. J., Phillips, C. J., Gelli, D. S., Gorman, G. W., Risi, J. B., and Feldman, R. A., Eradication of carriage of Neisseria meningitidis in families: A study in Brazil, J. Infect. Dis. 129:644–659 (1974).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Sivonen, A., Renkonen, O.-V., Weckstrom, P., Koskenvuo, K., Raunio, V., and Mäkelä, P. H., The effect of chemoprophylactic use of rifampin and minocycline on rates of carriage of Neisseria meningitidis in Army recruits in Finland, J. Infect. Dis. 137:238–244 (1978).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Campos, J., Mendelman, P. M., Sako, M. U., Chaffin, D. O., Smith, A. L., and Sáez-Nieto, J. A., Detection of a relatively penicillin G-resistant Neisseria meningitidis by disk susceptibility testing, Antimicrobiol. Agents. Chemother. 31:1478–1482 (1987).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Sutcliffe, E. M., Jones, D. M., El-Sheikh, S., and Percival, A., Penicillin-insensitive meningococci in the UK, Lancet 1:657–658 (1988).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Botha, P., Penicillin-resistant Neisseria meningitidis in Southern Africa (letter), Lancet 1:54 (1988).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Riley, G., Brown, S., and Krishnan, C., Penicillin resistance in Neisseria meningitidis (letter), N. Engl. J. Med. 324:997 (1991).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Woods, C. R., Smith, A. L., Wasilauskas, B. L., Campos, J., and Givner, L. B., Invasive disease caused by Neisseria meningitidis relatively resistant to penicillin in North Carolina, J. Infect. Dis. 170: 453–456 (1994).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Jackson, L. A., Tenover, F. C., Baker, C., Plikaytis, B. D., and Reeves, M. W., Prevalence of Neisseria meningitidis relatively resistant to penicillin in the United States, 1991, J. Infect. Dis. 169:438–441 (1994).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Antignac, A. Boneca, I. G., Rousselle, J. C., Namane, A., Carlier, J. P., Vazquez, J. A., Fox, A., Alonso, J. M., and Taha, M. K., Correlation between alterations of the penicillin-binding protein 2 and modifications of the peptidoglycan structure in Neisseria meningitidis with reduced susceptibility to penicillin G, J. Biol. Chem. 278: 31529–31535 (2003).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Stefanelli, P., Fazio, C., Neri, A., Sofia, T., and Mastrantonio, P., Emergence in Italy of a Neisseria meningitidis clone with decreased susceptibility to penicillin, Antimicrob. Ag. Chemother. 48:3103–3106 (2004).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Alcala, B., Salcedo, C., de la Fuente, L., Arreaza, L., Uria, M. J., Abad, R., Enriquez, R., Vazquez, J. A., Motge, M., and de Batlle, J., Neisseria meningitidis showing decreased susceptibility to ciprofloxacin: First report in Spain, J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 53:409 (2004).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Jorgensen, J. H., Crawford, S. A., Fiebelkorn, K. R., Susceptibility of Neisseria meningitidis to 16 antimicrobial agents and characterization of resistance mechanisms affecting some agents, J. Clin. Micro. 43:3162–3171 (2005).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Jacobson, J. A., Weaver, R. E., and Thornsberry, C., Trends in meningococcal disease, 1974, J. Infect. Dis. 132:480–484 (1975).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Summary of notifiable diseases, United States, 1994, Morbid. Mortal. Week. Rep. 43:69–80 (1994).

    Google Scholar 

  68. Riedo, F. X., Plikaytis, B. D., and Broome, C. V., Epidemiology and prevention of meningococcal disease, Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 14:643–657 (1995).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Glover, J. A., Observations of the meningococcus carrier rate, and their application to the prevention of cerebrospinal fever, Medical Research Council of the Privy Council, Special Report Series, No. 50, pp. 133–165, H. M. Stationery Offices, London, 1920.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Pizzi, M., A severe epidemic of meningococcus meningitis in Chile, 1941–1942, Am. J. Public Health 34:231–238 (1944).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Dudley, S. F., and Brennan, J. R., High and persistent carrier rates of Neisseria meningitidis, unaccompanied by cases of meningitis, J. Hyg. 34: 525–541 (1934).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Schoenbach, E. B., The meningococcal carrier state, Med. Ann. DC 12:417–420 (1943).

    Google Scholar 

  73. Arkwright, J. A., Cerebro-spinal meningitis: The interpretation of epidemiological observations by the light of bacteriological knowledge, Br. Med. J. 1:494–496 (1915).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Paul, J. R., Clinical Epidemiology, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Maxcy, K. F., The relationship of meningococcus carriers to the incidence of cerebrospinal fever, Am. J. Med. Sci. 193:438–445 (1937).

    Google Scholar 

  76. Greenfield, S., Sheehe, P. R., and Feldman, H. A., Meningococcal carriage in a population of “normal” families, J. Infect. Dis. 123: 67–73 (1971).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Rake, G., Studies on meningococcus infection. VI. The carrier problem, J. Exp. Med. 59:553–576 (1934).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Gauld, J. R., Nitz, R. E., Hunter, D. H., Rust, J. H., and Gauld, R. L., Epidemiology of meningococcal meningitis at Fort Ord, Am. J. Epidemiol. 82:56–72 (1965).

    Google Scholar 

  79. Olcén, P., Barr, J., and Kjellander, J., Meningitis and bacteremia due to Neisseria meningitidis: Clinical and laboratory findings in 69 cases from Orebro County, 1965 to 1977, Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 11:111–119 (1979).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Belcher, D. W., Sherriff, A. C., Nimo, K. P., Chew, G. L. N., Voros, A., Richardson, W. D., and Feldman, H. A., Meningococcal meningitis in northern Ghana: Epidemiology and control measures, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 26:748–755 (1977).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Feldman, H. A., Meningococcal infections, Adv. Intern. Med. 18:117–140 (1972).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Greenwood, B. M., Bradley, A. K., Cleland, P. G., Haggie, M. H. K., Hassan-King, M., Lewis, L. S., MacFarlane, J. T., Taqi, A., and Whittle, H. C., An epidemic of meningococcal infection at Zaria, northern Nigeria. 1. General epidemiological features, Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyh. 73:557–562 (1979).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Greenwood, B. M., Cleland, P. G., Haggie, M. H. K., Lewis, L. S., MacFarlane, J. T., Taqi, A., and Whittle, H. C., An epidemic of meningococcal infection at Zaria, northern Nigeria. 2. The changing clinical pattern, Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 73:563–566 (1979).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Hassan-King, M., Greenwood, B. M., and Whittle, H. C., An epidemic of meningococcal infection at Zaria, northern Nigeria. 3. Meningococcal carriage, Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 73:567–573 (1979).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Horn, D. W., The epidemic of cerebrospinal fever in the northern provinces of Nigeria, 1949–1950, J. R. Sanit. Inst. 71:573–588 (1951).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. http://www.meningitis.org/index.jsp?page=/content.jsp?sectno=5&subno=14 Accessed October 18, 2005.

  87. Dingle, J. H., and Finland, M., Diagnosis, treatment and prevention of meningococcic meningitis, with a resume of the practical aspects of treatment of other acute bacterial meningitides, War Med. 2:1–58 (1942).

    Google Scholar 

  88. Weekly epidemiological record. 16 September 2005. No. 37, 80: 313–320 (2005). http://www.who.int/wer

  89. Klein, J. O., Feigin, R. D., and McCracken, G. H., Jr., Report of the task force on diagnosis and management of meningitis, Pediatrics 78(S):959–982 (1986).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Beeson, P. B., and Westerman, E., Cerebrospinal fever: Analysis of 3,575 case reports with special reference to sulphonamide therapy, Br. Med. J. 1:497–500 (1943).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Norton, J. F., and Gordon, J. E., Meningococcus meningitis in Detroit in 1928–1929. I. Epidemiology, J. Prev. Med. 4:207–214 (1930).

    Google Scholar 

  92. Feldman, R. A., Koehler, R. E., and Fraser, D. W., Race-specific differences in bacterial meningitis deaths in the United States, 1962–1968, Am. J. Public Health 66:392–396 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Fraser, D. W., Darby, C. P., Koehler, R. E., Jacobs, C. F., and Feldman, R. A., Risk factors in bacterial meningitis: Charleston County, South Carolina, J. Infect. Dis. 127:271–277 (1973).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Pike, R. M., Laboratory-associated infections: Incidence, fatalities, causes, and prevention, Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 33:41–66 (1979).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemiologic notes and reports. Laboratory-acquired meningococcemia—California and Massachusetts, Morbid. Mortal. Week. Rep. 40:46–55 (1991).

    Google Scholar 

  96. Feldman, H. A., Meningococcal Infections, in: Bacterial Infections of Humans. Epidemiology and Control (A. S. Evans and H. A. Feldman, eds.), pp. 327–344, Plenum Press, New York, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Daniels, W. B., Solomon, S., and Jaquette, W. A., Jr., Meningococcic infections in soldiers, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 123:1–9 (1943).

    Google Scholar 

  98. Goldschneider, I., Gotschlich, E. C., and Artenstein, M. S., Human immunity to the meningococcus. I. The role of humoral antibodies, J. Exp. Med. 129:1307–1326 (1969).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Jacobson, J. A., Filice, G. A., and Holloway, J. T., Meningococcal disease in day-care centers, Pediatrics 59:299–300 (1977).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Feigin, R. D., Baker, C. J., Herwaldt, L. A., Lampe, R. M., Mason, E. O., and Whitney, S. E., Epidemic meningococcal disease in an elementary-school classroom, N. Engl. J. Med. 307:1255–1257 (1982).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Petersen, B. H., Lee, T. J., Snyderman, R., and Brooks, G. F., Neisseria meningitidis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae bacteremia associated with C6, C7, or C8 deficiency, Ann. Intern. Med. 90:917–920 (1979).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Cohen, M. S., Steere, A. C., Baltimore, R. S., von Graevenitz, A., Pantelick, E., Camp, B., and Root, R. K., Possible nosocomial transmission of Group Y Neisseria meningitidis among oncology patients, Ann. Intern. Med. 91:7–12 (1979).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Carpenter, C. M., and Charles, R., Isolation of meningococcus from the genitourinary tract of seven patients, Am. J. Public Health 32:640–643 (1942).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Blackwell, C., Young, H., and Bain, S. S. R., Isolation of Neisseria meningitidis and Neisseria catarrhalis from the genitourinary tract and anal canal, Br. J. Vener. Dis. 54:41–44 (1978).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Reiss-Levy, E., and Stephenson, J., Vaginal isolation of Neisseria meningitidis in association with meningococcaemia, Aust. N. Z. J. Med. 6:487–489 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Eschenbach, D. A., Buchanan, T. M., Polock, H. M., Forsyth, P. S., Alexander, E. R., Lin, J.-S., Wang, S.-P., Wentworth, B. B., McCormack, W. M., and Holmes, K. K., Polymicrobial etiology of acute pelvic inflammatory disease, N. Engl. J. Med. 293:166–171 (1975).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Fallon, R. J., and Robinson, E. T., Meningococcal vulvovaginitis, Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 6:295–296 (1974).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Faur, Y. C., Weisburd, M. H., and Wilson, M. E., Isolation of Neisseria meningitidis from the genito-urinary tract and canal, J. Clin. Microbiol. 2:178–182 (1975).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Givan, K. F., Thomas, B. W., and Johnston, A. G., Isolation of Neisseria meningitidis from the urethra, cervix, and anal canal: Further observations, Br. J. Vener. Dis. 53:109–112 (1977).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Gregory, J. E., and Abramson, E., Meningococci in vaginitis, Am. J. Dis. Child. 121:423 (1971).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Hammerschlag, M. R., and Baker, C. J., Meningococcal osteomyelitis: A report of two cases associated with septic arthritis, J. Pediatr. 88:519–520 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Laird, S. M., Meningococcal epididymitis, Lancet 1:469–470 (1944).

    Google Scholar 

  113. Miller, M. A., Millikin, P., Griffin, P. S., Sexton, R. A., and Yousuf, M., Neisseria meningitidus urethritis: A case report, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 242:1656–1657 (1979).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Murray, E. G. D., Meningococcus infections of the male urogenital tract and the liability to confusion with gonococcus infection, Urol. Cutaneous Rev. 43:739–741 (1939).

    Google Scholar 

  115. Norton, J. F., Meningococcus meningitis in Detroit: 1928–1929. V. Secondary cases, J. Prev. Med. 5:365–367 (1931).

    Google Scholar 

  116. Jacobson, J. A., Camargos, P. A. M., Ferreira, J. T., and McCormick, J. B., The risk of meningitis among classroom contacts during an epidemic of meningococcal disease, Am. J. Epidemiol. 104:552–555 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Meningococcal Disease Surveillance Group, Meningococcal disease: Secondary attack rate and chemoprophylaxis in the United States, 1974, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 235:261–265 (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  118. Purcell B, Sameulsson S, Hahne JM, Ehrhard I, Heuberger S, Camaroni I, Charlett A, Stuart JM. Effectiveness of antibiotics in preventing meningococcal disease after a case: systemic review. Brit. Med. Journ. 328:1339–1343 (2004).

    Google Scholar 

  119. Leedom, J. M., Ivler, D., Mathies, A. W., Jr., Thrupp, L. D., Fremont, J. C., Wehrle, P. F., and Portnoy, B., The problem of sulfadiazine-resistant meningococci, in: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 1966 (Hobby, G. L., ed.), pp. 281–292, American Society for Microbiology, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  120. Benenson, A. S., ed. Control of Communicable Diseases Manual, 16th ed., American Public Health Association, Washington, DC, 1995. p. 304.

    Google Scholar 

  121. Bolduan, C., and Goodwin, M. E., A clinical and bacteriological study of the communicability of cerebrospinal meningitis and the probable source of contagion: Part I of an investigation of cerebrospinal meningitis carried out under the auspices of the special commission of the Department of Health of New York City, Med. News 87:1222–1228, 1250–1257 (1905).

    Google Scholar 

  122. Gruss, A. D., Spier-Michl, I. B., and Gotschlich, E. C., A method for a radioimmunoassay using microtiter plates allowing simultaneous determination of antibodies to two non cross-reactive antigens, Immunochemistry 15:777–780 (1978).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Thomas, L., Smith, H. W., and Dingle, J. H., Investigation of meningococcal infection. II. Immunological aspects, J. Clin. Invest. 22:361–373 (1943).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Gotschlich, E. C., Liu, T. Y., and Artenstein, M. S., Human immunity to the meningococcus. III. Preparation and immunochemical properties of the group A, group B, and group C meningococcal polysaccharides, J. Exp. Med. 129:1349–1365 (1969).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Mayer, R. L., and Dowling, H. F., The determination of meningococcic antibodies by a centrifuge-agglutination test, J. Immunol. 51: 349–354 (1945).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Zollinger, W. D., Brandt, B. L., and Tramont, E. C., Immune response to Neisseria meningitidis, in: Manual of Clinical Laboratory Immunology, 3rd ed. (N. R. Rose, H. Friedman, and J. L. Fahey, eds.), pp. 346–352, American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  127. Gotschlich, E. C., Goldschneider, I., and Artenstein, M. S., Human immunity to the meningococcus. V. The effect of immunization with meningococcal group C polysaccharide on the carrier state, J. Exp. Med. 129:1385–1395 (1969).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Griffiss, J. M., Epidemic meningococcal disease: Synthesis of a hypothetical immunoepidemiologic model, Rev. Infect. Dis. 4:159–172 (1982).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Baltimore, R. S., and Hammerschlag, M., Meningococcal bacteremia: Clinical and serologic studies of infants with mild illness, Am. J. Dis. Child. 131:1001–1004 (1977).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Dashefsky, B., Teele, D. W., and Klein, J. O., Unsuspected meningococcemia, J. Pediatr. 102:69–72 (1983).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Kuppermann, N., Malley, R., Inkelis, S. H., Fleisher, G. R., Clinical and hematologic features do not reliably identify children with unsuspected meningococcal disease, Pediatrics 103:E20 (1999).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Koppes, G. M., Ellenbogen, C., and Gebhart, R. J., Group Y meningococcal disease in United States Air Force recruits, Am. J. Med. 62:661–714 (1977).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Hersh, J. H., Gold, R., and Lepow, M. L., Meningococcal group Y pneumonia in an adolescent female, Pediatrics 64:222–224 (1979).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Stephens, D. S., Edwards, K. M., and McKee, K. T., Meningococcal group Y disease in children, Pediatr. Infect. Dis. 3:523–525 (1984).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Griffiss, J. M., and Brandt, M. S., Disease due to W135 Neisseria meningitidis, Pediatrics 64:218–221 (1979).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Ellison, R. T., III, Kohler, P. F., Curd, J. G., Judson, F. N., and Reller, L. B., Prevalence of congenital or acquired complement deficiency in patients with sporadic meningococcal disease, N. Engl. J. Med. 308:914–916 (1983).

    Google Scholar 

  137. Laggiado, R. J., and Winkelstein, J. A., Prevalence of complement deficiencies in children with systemic meningococcal infections, Pediatr. Infect. Dis. 6:75–76 (1987).

    Google Scholar 

  138. Densen, P., Complement deficiencies and meningococcal disease, Clin. Exp. Immunol. 86(Suppl.):57–62 (1991).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Emonts, M., Hazelzet, J. A., de Groot, R., and Hermans, P. W. M., Host genetic determinants of Neisseria meningitidis infections, The Lancet 3:565–577 (2003).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Densen, P., Weiler, J. M., Griffiss, J. M., and Hoffman, L. G., Familial properidin deficiency and fatal meningococcemia. Correction of the bactericidal defect by vaccination, N. Engl. J. Med. 316:922–926 (1987).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Corfield, W. F., Multiple attacks of cerebrospinal fever, Lancet 1:402–403 (1945).

    Google Scholar 

  142. Smirnova, I., Mann, N., Dols, A., Derkx, H. H., Hibberd, M. L., Levin, M., Beutler, B., Assay of locus-specific genetic load implicates rare Toll-like receptor 4 mutations in meningococcal susceptibility. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 100:6075–6080 (2003).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Rosenstein, N. E., Perkins, B. A., Stephens, D. S., Popovic, T., Hughes, J. M., Medical Progress. Meningococcal disease, N. Engl. J. Med. 344: 1378–1388 (2001).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Schwartz, B., Chemoprophylaxis for bacterial infections: Principles of and application to meningococcal infections, Rev. Infect. Dis. 13(Suppl. 2):S170–S173 (1991).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Schwartz, B., Al-Tobaiqi, A., Al-Ruwais, A., Fontaine, R. E., A’ashi, J., Hightower, A. W., Broome, C. V., and Music, S. I., Comparative efficacy of ceftriaxone and rifampicin in eradicating pharyngeal carriage of group A Neisseria meningitidis, Lancet 1:1239–1242 (1988).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Wahdan, M. H., Rizk, F., El-Akkad, A. M., El Ghoroury, A. E., Hablas, R., Girgis, N. I., Amer, A., Boctar, W., Sippel, J. E., Gotschlich, E. C., Triau, R., Sanborn, W. R., and Cvjetanovic, B., A controlled field trial of a serogroup A meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine, Bull. WHO 48:667–673 (1973).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Griffiss, J. M., Brandt, B. L., Altieri, P. L., Pier, G. B., and Berman, S. L., Safety and immunogenicity of group Y and group W135 meningococcal capsular polysaccharide vaccines in adults, Infect. Immun. 34:725–732 (1981).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Greenwood, B. M., Hassan-King, M., and Whittle, H. C., Prevention of secondary cases of meningococcal disease in household contacts by vaccination, Br. Med. J. 1:1317–1319 (1978).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Gold, R., Polysaccharide meningococcal vaccines—Current status, Hosp. Pract. 14:41–48 (1979).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Gold, R., Lepow, M. L., Goldschneider, I., Draper, T. L., and Gotschlich, E. C., Clinical evaluation of group A and group C meningococcal polysaccharide vaccines in infants, J. Clin. Invest. 56:1536–1547 (1975).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Centers for Disease Control, Recommendation of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee (ACIP): Meningococcal vaccines, Morbid. Mortal. Week. Rep. 34:255–259 (1985).

    Google Scholar 

  152. Lepow, M. L., Beeler, J., Randolph, M., Samuelson, J. S., and Hankins, W. A., Reactogenicity and immunogenicity of a quadrivalent combined meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine in children, J. Infect. Dis. 154:1033–1036 (1986).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Whitney, C. G., Farley, M. M., Hadler, J., et al. Decline in invasive pneumococcal disease after the introduction of protein--polysaccharide conjugate vaccine. N. Engl. J. Med. 348:1737–1746 (2003).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Adams, W. G., Deaver, K. A., Cochi, S. L., et al., Decline of childhood Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in the Hib vaccine era, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 269:221–126 (1993).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Artenstein, M. S., Control of meningococcal meningitis with meningococcal vaccines, Yale J. Biol. Med. 48:197–200 (1975).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. http://www.cdc.gov/recs/schedules/default.htm. Accessed 1/25/09.

  157. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5407a1.htm. Accessed 1/25/09.

Suggested Reading

  1. Arkwright, J. A., Cerebro-spinal meningitis: The interpretation of epidemiological observations by the light of bacteriological knowledge, Br. Med. J. 1:494–496 (1915).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Artenstein, M. S., Gold, R., Zimmerly, J. G., Wyle, F. A., Schneider, H., and Harkins, C., Prevention of meningococcal disease by group C polysaccharide vaccine, N. Engl. J. Med. 282:417–420 (1970).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Centers for Disease Control and prevention. Prevention and control of meningococcal disease. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) MMWR. Recommendations and Reports. May 27, 2005/54(RR07);1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Emonts, M., Hazelzet, J. A., de Groot, R., and Hermans, P. W. M., Host genetic determinants of Neisseria meningitidis infections, The Lancet 3:565–577 (2003).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Goldschneider, I., Gotschlich, E. C., and Artenstein, M. S., Human immunity to the meningococcus. I. The role of humoral antibodies, J. Exp. Med. 129:1307–1326 (1969).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Gotschlich, E. C., Liu, T. Y., and Artenstein, M. S., Human immunity to the meningococcus. III. Preparation and immunochemical properties of the group A, group B, and group C meningococcal polysaccharides, J. Exp. Med. 129:1349–1365 (1969).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Greenfield, S., Sheehe, P. R., and Feldman, H. A., Meningococcal carriage in a population of “normal” families, J. Infect. Dis. 123:67–73 (1971).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Rosenstein, N. E., Perkins, B. A., Stephens, D. S., Popovic, T., Hughes, J. M., Medical Progress. Meningococcal disease, N. Engl. J. Med. 344:1378–1388 (2001).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Ruggeberg, J. U. and Pollard, A. J., Meningococcal vaccines. Paediatr. Drugs. 6:251–66 (2004).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Departments of Pediatrics and Epidemiology and Public Health, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, 06520-8064, USA

    Robert S. Baltimore

Authors
  1. Robert S. Baltimore
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Clifton Road NE., 1518, Atlanta, 30322, U.S.A.

    Philip S. Brachman

  2. College of Medicine, Office of Faculty Affairs, Drexel University, Race Street 1505, Philadelphia, 19102, U.S.A.

    Elias Abrutyn

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Baltimore, R.S. (2009). Meningococcal Infections. In: Brachman, P., Abrutyn, E. (eds) Bacterial Infections of Humans. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09843-2_24

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09843-2_24

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-387-09842-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-0-387-09843-2

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation