Summary
This paper deals with the quantification and the evaluation of cancer risks which are associated with incidental exposures resulting from environmental accidents. To this end, the general risk assessment methodology is applied to the PCB/dioxin exposure incident in Belgium during the period January to June 1999. On that occasion, mineral oil from an electric transformer containing approximately 50 kg of PCBs, 1 g TEQ dioxins and about 2 g TEQ dioxin-like PCBs was added to the food chain.
The hazard identification shows that 2,3,7,8 TCDD is carcinogenic in humans. It is logical to estimate the cancer risk of the other dioxins and PCBs on the basis of their TEQ-value. Non-cancer effects of dioxin/PCB exposure include immunotoxic effects, impacts on brain development and thyroid metabolism, endometriosis and other effects on the reproductive system. The general pattern which emerges from this analysis points to the characteristic effects of endocrine disrupters.
The action mechanism of cancer generation by TCDD does not reveal any argument against a linear-effect relationship without a threshold dose. As a complement to that, maximum limits for dioxins in food have been established. They are based upon the consideration that daily intakes should not exceed 1–4 pg I-TEQ/kg body-weight/day. Also for the PCBs cancer risk, a linear dose without threshold can be accepted.
The exposure assessment shows that, in the past, Belgians faced high background exposure to dioxins and PCBs, resulting in an estimated body burden of 6.88 ng ITEQ/ kg body weight. The incident increased this level on average by 7 per cent. For PCBs, the incident-related increase amounted to 42 per cent.
On the basis of this data, the extra number of cancer deaths resulting from the 1999 Belgian incident is estimated to range between 44 and 8316. Also, changes in the thyroid metabolism and changes in immunological response in babies should be expected as a result of the incident.
These estimations are characterised by uncertainties. The most important concern the insufficiently-detailed exposure assessment, the lack of data on dioxins and PCBs in food during the crisis, the lack of specific risk figures for acute exposure episodes and the lack of knowledge, in particular of the PCB action mechanism.
Overall, the analysis conclusively shows that in a densely-populated, industrialised country such as Belgium, background levels of PCB and dioxin exposure are high. Therefore, any increase in exposure results in a parallel increase, not only in cancer risk, but also in the risk of non-cancer effects. Therefore, and because there is a clear trend of identifying dioxin and PCB-related health effects at decreasing doses, it is of main importance to keep the food chain-related exposure limited. This necessitates lower dioxin values than those the EU put in place on July 1st, 2002. Also the cost/benefit analysis of the introduction of waste products into the food chain should be reviewed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Ansay, M.A.J. (1999) Les dioxins? Quels risques? Ann. Méd. Vet. 143, 365-378 (in French). Baeyens, J. ( 1993 ) Emissions for MWI, Aminal Report, Aminal, Brussels, Belgium.
Becher, H., Steindorf, K., and Flesch-Janys, D. (1998) Quantitative cancer risk assessment for dioxins using an occupational cohort, Environ. Health Perspect.106 Suppl. 2, 663-670.
Bernard, A., Hermans, C., Broeckaert, F., De Poorter, G., De Cock, A., and Houins, G. (1999) Food contamination by PCBs and dioxins, Nature 401, 231 - 232.
Bernard, A., Broeckaert, F., De Poorter, G., De Cock, A., Hermans, C., Saegerman, C., and Houins, G. (2002) The Belgian PCB/dioxin incident: Analysis of the food chain contamination and health risk evaluation, Environmental Research 88 (1), 1-18.
Carver, L.A., Hogenesch, J.B., and Bradfield, C.A. (1994) Tissue specific expression of the rat Ah-receptor and ARNT in RNAs, Nucleic Acids Res. 22, 3038 - 3044.
Clark, G., Tritscher, A., Bell, D., and Lucier, G. (1992) Integrated approach for evaluating species and interindividual differences in responsiveness to dioxins and structural analogs, Environ. Health Perspect.98, 125 - 132.
Cogliano, V.J. (1998) Assessing the cancer risk from environmental PCBs, Environ. Health Perspect.106, 317 - 323.
Cox, D. (1999) Achtergrond puntblootstelling van de Belgische bevolking aan dioxines, M.S. Thesis, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium (in Dutch).
De Fré, R., and Wevers, M. (1995) Stofdossier dioxines - eindrapport MEI-DI-9459, Vlaamse Milieumaatschappij, Erembodegem, Belgium (in Dutch).
De Guise, S., Flipo, D., Boehm, J.R., Martineau, D., Beland, P., and Fournier, M. (1995a) Immune functions in beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas): evaluation of phagocytosis and respiratory burst with peripheral blood leukocytes using flow cytometry, Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 47 (3-4), 351 - 362.
De Guise, S., Lagace, A., Beland, P., Girard, C. and Higgins, R. (1995b) Non-neoplastic legions in beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) and other marine mammals from the St. Lawrence Estuary, J. Comp. Pathol. 112 (3), 257 - 271.
Egeland, G.M., Sweeney, M.H., Fingerhut, M.A., Wille, K.K., Schnorr, T.M., and Halperin, W.E. (1994) Total serum testosterone and gonadotropins in workers exposed to dioxin, Am. J. Epidemiol. 139 (3), 272 - 281.
EPA - US Environmental Protection Agency (1989) Interim procedures for estimating risks associated with exposures to mixtures of chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (CDDs and CDFs) an 1989 update, 22161 PB 90-145756, US Department of Commerce, National Information Service, Springfield, VA.
EPA - US Environmental Protection Agency (1994a) Estimating exposure to dioxin-like compounds, Vol. 1, Executive summary, External review draft, EPA/600/6-88/005 Ca, June 1994, 127 pp.
EPA - US Environmental Protection Agency (1994b) Health assessment document for 2,3,7,8- tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and related compounds, External review draft, EPA/600/BP-92/001 c, August 1994, 134 pp.
EU Council Regulation (EC) No. 2375/2001.
Facemire, C.F., Gross, T.S., and Guillette, L.J. (1995) Reproductive impairment in the Florida panther: nature or nurture? Environ. Health Perspect.103 Suppl. 4, 79-86.
Gilbertson, M., Kubiak, T.J., Ludwig, J.P., and Fox, G. (1991) Great Lakes embryo mortality, edema, the deformities syndrome (GLEMEDS) in colonial fish-eating birds: similarity to chick edema disease, J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 33, 544 - 520.
Grassman, J.A., Marten, S.A., Walker, N.J., and Lucier, G.W. (1998) Animal models of human response to dioxins, Environ. Health Perspect.106 Suppl. 2, 761-775.
Goldstein, J.A., and Linko, P. (1994) Differential induction of two 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-pdioxin-inducable forms of cytochrome P-450 in extrahepatic versus hepatic tissues, Mol. Pharmacol.25, 185 - 191.
Gray, L.E., Jr., and Ostby, J.S. (1995) In utero 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo -p-dioxin (TCDD) alters reproductive morphology and function in female rat offspring, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.133, 285 - 294.
Hudson, L.G., Toscano, W.A., Jr., and Greenlee, W.F. (1985) Regulation of epidermal growth factor binding in human keratinocyte cell line by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo -p-dioxin, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.77, 251 - 259.
Huff, J.E., Salmon, A.G., Hooper, N.K., and Zeise, L. (1991) Long-term carcinogenesis study on 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo -p-dioxin and hexachlorodibenzo-p-dioxins, Cell. Biol. Toxicol.7, 67 - 94.
Jacobson, J.L., Jacobson, S., and Humphrey, H.E.B. (1990) Effects of in utero exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and related contaminants on cognitive functioning in young children, J. Pediatr.116, 38 - 45.
Jacobson, J.L., and Jacobson, S. (1996) Intellectual impairment in children exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls in utero, N. Eng. J. Med.335, 783 - 789.
Kerkvliet, N.I. (1995) Immunological effects of chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, Environ. Health Perspect.103 Suppl. 3, 47-53.
Koopman-Esseboom, C., Morse, D.C., Weisglas-Kuperus, N., Lutkeschipholt, IJ., Vanderpaauw, G.G., and Tuinstra, L.G. (1994) Effects of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls on thyroid hormone status of pregnant women and their infants, Pediatr. Research 36, 468 - 473.
Lucier, G.W, Helsen, K.G., Everson, R.B., Wong, T.K., Philpot, R.M., Tiernan, T., Taylor, M., and Sunahara, G.I. (1987) Placental markers of human exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and polychlorinated dibenzofurans, Environ. Health Perspect.76, 79 - 87.
Marten, S.A., Grassman, J.A., Jang, X., Miller, C.R., Spencer, D.L., Lanver, K.M., Walker, N.J., Jung, D., Konietzko, J., Edler, L., et al.(1997) Mechanistically based markers of exposure and response to dioxin in occupationally exposed individuals, Organohalogen Compounds 34, 80 - 85.
Michalek, J.E., Pirkle, J.L., Caudill, S.P., Tripathi, R.C., Patterson, D.G., Jr., and Needhan, L.L. (1996) Pharmacokinetics of TCDD in veterans of Operation Ranch Hand: 10-year follow-up, J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 47, 209 - 220.
Ministerie voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu (1990) Belgisch Staatsblad, 18/07/1990, Appendix 2 van het Koninklijk Decreet van 25/04/1990, Brussels, Belgium (in Dutch and French).
Mocarelli, P., Gerthoux, P.M., Ferrari, E., Patterson, D.G., Kieszak, M., Brambilla, P., Vincoli, N., Signori, S., Tramacere, P., Carreri, V., Sampson, E.J., Turner, W.E., and Needman, L.L. (2000) Paternal concentrations of dioxin and sex ratio of offspring, Lancet 355, 1858 - 1863.
Moore, R.W., Potter, C.L., Theobald, H.M., Robinson, J.A., and Peterson, R.E. (1985) Androgenic deficiency in male rats treated with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo -p-dioxin, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.79, 99 - 111.
NAS - National Academy of Sciences US (1994) Science and Judgement in Risk Assessment, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (1988) Pilot study on international information exchange on dioxins and related compounds: emissions of dioxins and related compounds from combustion and incineration sources, Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society, report 172, August 1988.
Nicolopoulou-Stamati, P., Hens, L., and Howard, C.V. (eds) (2001) Endocrine Disrupters: Environmental Health and Policies, Environmental Science and Technology Library, Vol. 18, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, 376 pp.
Neubert, R., Maskow, L., Webb, J., Jacob Muller, U., Nogueira, A.C., Delgado, I., Helge, H., and Neubert, D. (1993) Chlorinated dibenzo -p-dioxins, dibenzofurans, and biphenyls, Environ. Health Perspect.105, 750 - 755.
Pluim, H.J., Koppe, J.G., Olie, K., van der Slikke, J.W., Slot, P.C., and van Boxtel, C.J. (1994) Clinical laboratory manifestations of exposure to background levels of dioxins in the perinatal period, Acta Paediatrica 83, 583 - 587.
Reynders, P.J.H. (1986) Reproductive failure in common seals feeding on fish from polluted coastal waters, Nature 324, 456 - 457.
Rier, S.E., Martin, D.C., Bowman, R.E., Dmowski, W.P., and Becker, J.L. (1993) Endometriosis in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) following chronic exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-pdioxin, Fundam. Appl. Toxicol.21, 433 - 441.
Safe, S. (1996) Human toxicology of chlorinated organic micropollutants, in R.E. Hester, and R.M. Harrisson (eds), Chlorinated Organic Micropollutants, The Royal Society of Chemistry, London, UK, pp. 73 - 88.
Steenland, K., Piacitelli, L., Deddens, J., and Fingerhut, M. (1999) Cancer, heart disease and diabetes in workers exposed to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, J. Natl. Cancer Instit.91, 779 - 786.
Schweikl, H., Taylor, J.A., Kitareewan, S., Linko, P., Nagorney, D., and Goldstein, J.A. (1993) Expression of CYPIA1 and CYPIA2 genes in human liver, Pharmacogenetics 3, 239 - 249.
ten Tusscher, G.W., Steerenberg, P.A., van Loveren, H., Vos, J.G., van dem Borne, A.E.G.K., Westra, M., van der Slikke, J.W., Olie, K., and Koppe, J.G. (2002) persistent haematological and immunological disturbances in Dutch eight year old children associated with perinatal dioxin exposure, Acta Paediatrica, submitted.
Tonn, T., Esser, C., Schneider, E.M., Steinmann Steiner Haldenstatt, W., and Gleichmann, E. (1996) Persistence of decreased T-helper cell function in industrial workers 20 years after exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo -p-dioxin, Environ. Health Perspect.104, 422 - 426.
Travis, C.C., and Nixon, A.G. (1996) Human exposure to dioxin, in R.E. Hester, and R.M. Harrisson (eds), Chlorinated Organic Micropollutants, The Royal Society of Chemistry, London, UK, pp. 17 - 30.
UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programme (1999) Dioxin and Furan Inventories: National and Regional Emission of PCDD/PCDF, Geneva, Switzerland.
Van Cleuvenbergen, R., Wevers, M., Schoeters, J., and De Fré, R. (1994) Dioxins (PCDDs and PCDFs) in human milk from Flanders, Belgium: concentration levels and congener profile, Organohalogen Compounds 20, 215 - 220.
Van den Berg, M., Peterson, R.E., and Schrenk, D. (2000) Human risk assessment and TEFs, Food Additives Contaminants 17, 347 - 358.
Van Houtte, P., and Pâque, L. (eds) (2000) Report of the Belgian Parliament on the organisation and production of meat, dairy and eggs in Belgium and on the political responsibilities in the dioxin crisis, Parliament of Belgium, Doc. 50 0018/007 (in Dutch and French).
Van Larebeke, N., Hens, L., Schepens, P., Covaci, A., Baeyens, J., Everaert, K., Bernheim, J.L., Vlietinck, R., and De Poorter, G. (2001) The Belgian PCB and dioxin incident of January-June 1999: exposure data and potential impact on health, Environ. Health Perspect. 109 (3), 265 - 273.
Van Larebeke, N., Covaci, A., Schepens, P., and Hens, L. (2002) Food contamination with polychlorinated byphenyls and dioxins in Belgium. Effects on the body burden, J. Epidemiol. Community Health 56, 0 - 2.
Van Leeuwen, F.X., and Younes, M. (1998) WHO revises the tolerable daily intake (TDI) for dioxins, Organohalogen Compounds 38, 295 - 298.
Verbruggen, A. (ed.) (1998) MIRA T. Milieu-en Natuurrapport Vlaanderen: Thema's, Garant, Leuven, Belgium (in Dutch).
Verbruggen, A. (ed.) (1999) MIRA T. Milieu-en Natuurrapport Vlaanderen: Thema's, Garant, Leuven, Belgium (in Dutch).
Walkowiak, J., Wiener, J.A., Fastabend, A., Heinzow, B., Kramer, U., Schmidt, E., Steingruber, H.J., Wundram, S., and Winnike, G. (2001) Environmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and quality of the home environment: effects on psychodevelopment in early childhood, Lancet 358, 1602 - 1607.
Weisglas-Kuperus, N., Sas, T.C.J., Koopman-Esseboom, C., Van der Zwan, C.W., De Ridder, M.A.J., Beishuizen, A., Hooijkaas, H., and Sauer, P.J.J. (1995) Immunologic effects of background prenatal and postnatal exposure to dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls in Dutch infants, Pediatr. Research 38, 404 - 410.
Weisglas-Kuperus, N., Patandin, S., Berbers, G.A., Sas, T.C., Mulder, P.G., Sauer, P.J., and Hooijkaas, H. (2000) Immunologic effects of background exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins in Dutch preschool children, Environ. Health Perspect.108, 1203 - 1207.
WHO - World Health Organisation (1996) WHO-Co-ordinated Study: Levels of PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs in Human Milk, Environmental Health in Europe No. 3, European Centre for Environment and Health, Bilthoven, the Netherlands.
WHO - World Health Organisation - Regional Office for Europe (1999a) Contamination with Dioxin of Some Belgian Food Products, updated 15 June, 1999, 3 pp.
WHO - World Health Organisation (1999b) Dioxins and Their Effects on Human Health, n° 225, June 1999, 5 pp.
WHO - World Health Organisation (200 1) Global Assessment on Endocrine Disrupters, in press. Whysner, J., and Williams, G.M. (1996) 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-dibenzo -p-dioxin. Mechanistic data and risk assessment: gare regulation, cytotoxicity, enhanced cell proliferation, and tumor promotion,Pharmacol. Ther.71, 193-223.
Wolfe, W.H., Michalek, J.E., Miner, J.C., Pirkle, J.L., Caudell, S.P., Patterson, D.G., Jr., and Needhan, L.L. (1994) Determinants of TCDD half-life in veterans of Operation Ranch Hand, J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 41, 481 - 488.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hens, L. (2004). Health Impact Assessment of Accidents with Environmental Carcinogens. In: Nicolopoulou-Stamati, P., Hens, L., Howard, C.V., Van Larebeke, N. (eds) Cancer as an Environmental Disease. Environmental Science and Technology Library, vol 20. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-306-48513-8_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-306-48513-8_6
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-1-4020-2020-9
Online ISBN: 978-0-306-48513-8
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive