Abstract
Although the Paris peace settlement dealt with the entire globe, it was a peculiarly European peace, written largely by the European victors to their own benefit. Despite nominal Japanese participation and Wilson’s efforts toward a new world order, the treaties reflected Europe’s view of the world and of its own role in it. Most of the assumptions upon which European leaders operated had, however, been rendered obsolete by the First World War. In this sense the settlement was anachronistic.
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Notes and References
Leonard Mosley, Curzon: The End of an Epoch (London, 1960) p. 210.
José Ortega y Gasset, The Revolt of the Masses (New York, 1930, 1957 edn) p. 55. See also his ch. 14, urging both European union and the necessity for European domination of the world.
Maj.-Gen. Sir C. E. Callwell, Field Marshal Sir Henry Wilson, His Life and Diaries, 2 vols (London, 1927), p. 193.
The standard source is Piotr Wandycz, Soviet-Polish Relations, 1917–1921 (Cambridge, MA, 1969).
For a summary treatment, see Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland, 2 vols (New York, 1982).
Comment by Salvador de Madariaga cited in Ruth Henig, ‘Britain, France, and the League of Nations in the 1920s’, in Alan Sharp and Glyn Stone (eds), Anglo-French Relations in the Twentieth Century (New York, 2000) p. 129.
Sally Marks, The Ebbing of European Ascendancy (London, 2002) p. 276.
Michael E. Howard, The Continental Commitment (London, 1972) p. 78.
D. W. Brogan, The Development of Modern France (New York, 1966 edn) p. 543.
Imanuel Geiss, ‘The Weimar Republic between the Second and Third Reich’, in Michael Laffan (ed.), The Burden of German History, 1919–45 (London, 1988) pp. 66–9; Krfiger in Schröder (ed.), pp. 328–32.
Pierre Rain, L’Europe de Versailles (Paris, 1945) p. 141.
The standard work is Magda Ádám, The Little Entente and Europe (1920–1929), tr. Mátyás Esterházy (Budapest, 1993).
Gaston A. Furst, De Versailles aux experts (Nancy, 1927) pp. 124–6, 133–4, 346. Also indispensable on any question concerning German reparations is
Étienne Weill-Raynall, Les Réparations allemandes et la France, 3 vols (Paris, 1947).
For the Franco-Belgian negotiations, see DDB, I. For the eastern alliances, see Piotr Wandycz, France and her Eastern Allies, 1919–1925 (Minneapolis, MN, 1962).
On the Washington Conference, see Roger Dingman, Power in the Pacific (Chicago, 1976) and
Erik Goldstein and John Maurer (eds), The Washington Conference, 1921–22 (London, 1995). There is a summary account in SIA, 1920–1923. For documents, see Cmd. 1627 (London, 1922); DD, Conférence de Washington (Paris, 1923); and especially FRUS, 1921, I, and 1922, I. Minutes of meetings may be found in United States, 67th Congress, Second Session, Senate Document No. 126, Conference on the Limitation of Armament (Washington, DC, 1922).
Joel Blatt, ‘France and the Washington Conference’, in Goldstein and Maurer (eds), pp. 192–219, also Joel Blatt, ‘The Parity that Meant Superiority’, French Historical Studies (1981) 223–48.
See Georges Suarez, Briand: sa vie, son oeuvre, 6 vols (Paris, 1938–52) V.
Frank Owen, Tempestuous Journey: Lloyd George, his Life and Times (New York, 1955), pp. 598–9. On the Anglo-French negotiations, see also Cmd. 2169 (London, 1924) and DD, Documents rélatifs aux négociations concernant les garanties de sécurité… (Paris, 1924).
Jacques Bardoux, Lloyd George et la France (Paris, 1923) pp. 18, 19, 30.
On the Genoa Conference in general and the Rapallo treaty in particular, see Carole Fink, The Genoa Conference (Chapel Hill, NC, 1984).
For details, see Aleksandr Nekrich, Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922, 1941, ed. and tr. Gregory L. Freeze (New York, 1997).
For the memoir of a participant, see Gustav Hilger and Alfred G. Meyer, The Incompatible Allies, German-Soviet Relations, 1918–1941 (New York, 1953), especially chs VI and VII.
Stephen A. Schuker, The End of French Predominance in Europe (Chapel Hill, NC, 1976) pp. 6, 12, 16;
Schuker, American ‘Reparations’ to Germany, 1919–33 (Princeton, 1988) p. 22; Heiber, pp. 42–5, 73–4, 86; Kolb, pp. 40–41; Mommsen, p. 117; Nicholls, pp. 75, 125;
Niall Ferguson, The Pity of War (London, 1999) pp. 391, 411–2, 414.
Carl-Ludwig Holtfrerich, The German Inflation, 1919–1923, tr. Theo Balderston (Berlin, 1986) dissents, pp. 137–55, especially 153–4, but has proved in ‘Internationale Verteilungsfolgen der deutschen Inflation, 1918–1923’, Kyklos XXX (1977) 271–92, that foreign investment in Germany lost in the inflation constituted a real transfer of wealth amply covering reparations paid to 1923.
Bruce Kent, The Spoils of War (Oxford, 1989), announces at the outset a ‘cornerstone assumption’ that reparations were unpayable.
Holtfrerich, Gerald D. Feldman in The Great Disorder: Politics, Economics, and Society in the German Inflation, 1914–1924 (New York, 1993) and Manfred Berg in ‘Trade, Debts, and Reparations’, in Schröder (ed.), make a key distinction between economic feasibility and political possibility.
Crowe memo (27 Dec. 1922) FO 371/7491; Ryan to Lampson (5 Jan. 1923), no number, FO 371/8626. See also J. F. V. Keiger, Raymond Poincaré (Cambridge, 1997) pp. 290–9 and
Sally Marks, ‘Poincaré-lapeur: France and the Ruhr Crisis’, in Kenneth Mouré and Martin S. Alexander (eds), Crisis and Renewal in France, 1918–1962 (New York, 2002) pp. 28–45.
Commission des Réparations, Rapport sur les travaux de la commission des réparations de 1920 à 1922, 2 vols (Paris, 1923) I, pp. 241–7, II, pp. 465–88, 430–1.
Stephen D. Carls, Louis Loucheur and the Shaping of Modern France, 1916–1931 (Baton Rouge, LA, 1993) p. 9; Mommsen, p. 144.
For details, see V. R. Berghahn, Modern Germany (Cambridge, 1987) or Nicholls.
For text, see Reparations Commission, Official Documents, (London 1927).
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Marks, S. (2003). The Effort to Enforce the Peace. In: The Illusion of Peace. The Making of the 20th Century. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-230-62949-3_2
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