Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Mining in Outer Space: Legal Aspects

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2018

Part of the book series: European Yearbook of International Economic Law ((EUROYEAR,volume 9))

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the international and domestic legal frameworks relevant for the upcoming space mining activities. After an introduction describing the space mining projects currently under development, as well as the main companies and countries involved, the first part is dedicated to the international legal framework: Prominent attention is dedicated to the Outer Space Treaty and to the rules concerning the principle of non-appropriation, the protection of the environment and the right of States to legislate in areas pertaining to the “global commons”, such as outer space and the celestial bodies. The relevance of the Moon Agreement is also assessed. The second part of the article focuses on the national perspective, providing an analysis of the obligations under the Outer Space Treaty relevant to the adoption of a national legal framework. The space mining legislations currently in force, i.e. the U.S. legislation and the legislation of Luxembourg, are subsequently examined. Building on the previous analysis, the concluding remarks present an evaluation of the legal framework and indicate the possible legislative developments de iure condendo.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Lenard (2017).

  2. 2.

    ESA: Europe’s Comet Chaser, 1 December 2017, http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Rosetta/Europe_s_comet_chaser (last accessed 1 December 2017).

  3. 3.

    See https://www.planetaryresources.com/2011/01/planetary-resources-opens-doors/ (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  4. 4.

    Wall M: Asteroid Mining May Be a Reality by 2025, 11 August 2015, https://www.space.com/30213-asteroid-mining-planetary-resources-2025.html (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  5. 5.

    See http://deepspaceindustries.com (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  6. 6.

    Mizushima et al. (2017), p. 546.

  7. 7.

    See http://ispace-inc.com/ (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  8. 8.

    Goswami: N, China’s Unique Space Ambitions, The Diplomat, 3 August 2016, https://thediplomat.com/2016/08/chinas-unique-space-ambitions/ (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  9. 9.

    Shouping (2017), p. 20 et seqq.

  10. 10.

    Mizushima et al. (2017), p. 546.

  11. 11.

    For instance, OHB Venture Capital GmbH, Munich, and LuxSpace SARL., Betzdorf, Luxembourg (both subsidiaries of OHB SE) have established a company known as Blue Horizon SARL., or Rama, a private space company located in Luxembourg planning to commercialise space resources in the solar system which is acquiring advanced technologies and intellectual property from Russia, Europe and other space faring countries to help to build an advanced technology hub. On 15 November 2017, US based Spire signed a cooperation agreement with the Government of Luxembourg to open a European HQ in the Grand Duchy, www.spaceresources.public.lu (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  12. 12.

    With Japan on 27 November 2017, with UAE on 10 October 2017 and Portugal (2017), http://www.spaceresources.public.lu/en.html (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  13. 13.

    Document No. Pr-906, approved by the President of the Russian Federation on 19 April 2013.

  14. 14.

    See e.g. Reviewing opportunities for achieving the Vienna Consensus on Space Security encompassing several regulatory domains, Working paper submitted by the Russian Federation in the 53rd Session of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.1/2016/CRP.15, 16 February 2016.

  15. 15.

    See e.g. Contribution from Belgium to the discussion under UNCOPUOS Legal Subcommittee on item “General exchange of views on potential legal models for activities in exploration, exploitation and utilization of space resources” in the 56th Session of the Legal Subcommittee, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/2017/CRP.19, 28 March 2017.

  16. 16.

    Mizushima et al. (2017), p. 543 et. seqq.; Frank (2017).

  17. 17.

    E.g. Volynskaja (2016), 291 et. seqq.; De Man (2017); Hobe and De Man (2017).

  18. 18.

    Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities in the Exploration and Exploitation of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 610 UNTS 205, entered into force on 10 October 1967.

  19. 19.

    Status of International Agreements relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2017, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/2017/CRP.7, 23 March 2017.

  20. 20.

    On the legal character of the Outer Space Treaty see e.g. Hobe et al. (2009); Von der Dunk (2015).

  21. 21.

    Volynskaja (2016), p. 296.

  22. 22.

    Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 1363 UNTS 3, entered into force on 11 July 1984.

  23. 23.

    IISL Directorate of Studies, Background Paper, 2017, http://iislweb.org/docs/IISL_Space_Mining_Study.pdf (last accessed 20 December 2017), p. 9.

  24. 24.

    Mizushima et al. (2017), p. 548.

  25. 25.

    Status of International Agreements relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2017, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/2017/CRP.7, 23 March 2017.

  26. 26.

    Despite of the declaration which stipulates that this joint statement is based on experience of States parties to the Agreement of the 1979 Moon Agreement and does not, in any manner, constitute a joint position or an authoritative interpretation of the provisions of the mentioned treaties or resolutions, Joint Statement on the benefits of adherence to the Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 1979 by States Parties to that Agreement, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/2008/CRP.11, 2 April 2008.

  27. 27.

    Hofmann (2010), p. 63.

  28. 28.

    Gupta (2016), p. 24.

  29. 29.

    Qizhi (1988), p. 125.

  30. 30.

    It has to be recalled, however, that the legal delimitation between airspace and outer space is still subject of debate. See De Oliveira Bittencourt Neto (2015).

  31. 31.

    Lyall and Larsen (2009), p. 176.

  32. 32.

    Tennen (2009–2010), p. 797. It would be debatable, however, whether a celestial body—such as a small asteroid—artificially removed from its orbit and under human control would still be deemed as a celestial body or whether it would fall within the category of “space object”.

  33. 33.

    This would imply the lack of relevance of Article IX with regard to a growing issue such as orbital space debris, or an aberrant interpretation such as its applicability only to the debris created by scientific satellites.

  34. 34.

    For a general overview of the various types of extra-terrestrial environment contamination see Kramer (2014), p. 217.

  35. 35.

    Lyall (2010), p. 57.

  36. 36.

    Lyall (2010), p. 58.

  37. 37.

    Gupta (2016), p. 27.

  38. 38.

    UNOOSA, Status of International Agreements relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2017, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/2017/CRP.7, 23 March 2017.

  39. 39.

    See https://cosparhq.cnes.fr/ (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  40. 40.

    See https://cosparhq.cnes.fr/sites/default/files/pppolicy.pdf (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  41. 41.

    COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy 2011, Preamble, https://cosparhq.cnes.fr/sites/default/files/pppolicy.pdf (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  42. 42.

    Hofmann (2017).

  43. 43.

    Apking (2005), p. 447.

  44. 44.

    Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, endorsed by UNCOPUOS at its 50th session and contained in UN Doc. A/62/20, Annex, p. 47, 2007.

  45. 45.

    To compare, a comparison with the system of the International Telecommunication Union can be useful: the Constitution of the ITU, BTS 24 (1996), declares (Article 44) radio frequencies and any associated orbits, including the geo-stationary orbit “limited natural resources” which must be used rationally, efficiently and economically, so that countries may have “equitable access” to those.

  46. 46.

    Hobe et al. (2009), p. 27.

  47. 47.

    Hobe et al. (2009), p. 27.

  48. 48.

    Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interests of All States, taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries, adopted by General Assembly in its Resolution 51/122 of 13 December 1996, UN Doc. A/RES/51/122.

  49. 49.

    Through Article 1 of this Agreement, Moon means also other celestial bodies, as well as the orbits around or other trajectories to or around these.

  50. 50.

    Hobe et al. (2013), p. 395.

  51. 51.

    Hobe et al. (2013), p. 397.

  52. 52.

    Hobe et al. (2013), p. 397. “as we have seen in the case of the amended UNCLOS”.

  53. 53.

    See e.g. Hobe and De Man (2017).

  54. 54.

    So can be interpreted e.g. Working paper submitted by the Russian Federation in the 53rd Session of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.1/2016/CRP.15, 16 February 2016.

  55. 55.

    Results of the IISL Background Paper, p. 45, 2017, http://iislweb.org/docs/IISL_Space_Mining_Study.pdf (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  56. 56.

    UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1833 UNTS 3.

  57. 57.

    The 1994 Agreement established an International Seabed Authority (Article 1) as a body responsible for concluding the contracts with the investors, and an Enterprise (Article 2) entering into joint ventures with the contractors, Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, OJ 1994 L 215/10.

  58. 58.

    Joint Statement on the benefits of adherence to the Agreement Governing the Activities States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 1979 by States Parties to this Agreement, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/2008/CRP.11, 2 April 2008.

  59. 59.

    Adopted by the General Assembly in its resolution—Principles relating to remote sensing of the Earth from space, UNGA Res. 41/65, UN Doc. A/RES/41/65 of 3 December 1986.

  60. 60.

    Public Law 98-365, 98th Congress, H.R. 5155, 17 July 1984, 98 Stat. 451.

  61. 61.

    The S.S Lotus Case (France v. Turkey), P.C.I.J. Ser. A, No. 10, p. 4 (1927), see (with critical remarks) Bogdandy, Rau (2006), Lotus, The Max Planck Encyclopaedia of Public International Law, June 2006, http://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e162?prd=EPIL (last accessed 16 February 2018).

  62. 62.

    Outer Space Act, Denmark, Act no. 409 of 11 May 2016.

  63. 63.

    Constitution of the Republic of Bulgaria, prom. SG 56/13 July 1991 as amended.

  64. 64.

    The Hague Working Group Draft Building Blocks on Space Resources Activities 2017, http://law.leiden.edu/organisation/publiclaw/iiasl/working-group/the-hague-space-resources-governance-working-group.html (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  65. 65.

    See e.g. Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, UN Doc. A/72/20, 60th Session—7–16 June, 2017.

  66. 66.

    This part is partly based on Leterre, Providing a Legal Framework for Sustainable Space Mining Activities, Master Thesis, University of Luxembourg, 2017, https://wwwen.uni.lu/recherche/fdef/satellite_communications_and_space_law/publications (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  67. 67.

    US Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act, 129 STAT. 704.

  68. 68.

    Working paper submitted by the Russian Federation in the 53rd Session of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.1/2016/CRP.15, 16 February 2016.

  69. 69.

    National and Commercial Space Programs, 51 U.S.C. § 50902 (1996) (US), https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/51/50902 (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  70. 70.

    An interest of 41% is presumed sufficient; see Aeronautics and Space, 14 CFR 401.5, https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/14/401.5 (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  71. 71.

    Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), Report on On-orbit Authority, as Required by the Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act (Public Law 114-90) (2016), https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/csla_report_4-4-16_final.pdf (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  72. 72.

    Masson-Zwaan and Palkowicz (2017), pp. 11–12.

  73. 73.

    Gabrynowicz, Title IV of the 2015 U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act, 27 March 2017, http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/lsc/2017/symp-05.pdf (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  74. 74.

    Gabrynowicz, Title IV of the 2015 U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act, 27 March 2017, http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/lsc/2017/symp-05.pdf (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  75. 75.

    Loi du 20 juillet 2017 sur l’exploration et l’utilisation des ressources de l’espace (Mémorial a, no 674 du 28 juillet 2017).

  76. 76.

    Law of Electronic Media of 27 July 1991, Luxembourg, http://www.legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/2010/0241/a241.pdf (last accessed 20 December 2017).

  77. 77.

    Hofmann, Prüm, Von Der Dunk, Tronchetti (2016) Study on Legal and Regulatory Aspects of Space Resources Utilisation in Luxembourg, not published.

  78. 78.

    See Luxembourg law on the exploration and use of space resources entered into force, Arendt Publication: Newsflash, 2 August 2017, http://www.arendt.com/publications/pages/luxembourg-law-exploration-use-space-resources-into-force.aspx (last accessed 13 February 2018).

  79. 79.

    Opinion of the Conseil d’État, Luxembourg of 7 April 2017, p. 9.

  80. 80.

    Luxembourg law on the exploration and use of space resources entered into force, Arendt Publication: Newsflash, 2 August 2017.

  81. 81.

    “L’exploitant qui a obtenu un agrément pour une mission est pleinement responsable des dommages causés à l’occasion de la mission, y inclus à l’occasion de tous travaux et devoirs de préparation.”

References

  • Apking AG (2005) The rush to develop space: the role of space faring nations in forging environmental standards for the use of celestial bodies for governmental and private interests. Colorado J Int Environ Law Policy 16(2):429–466

    Google Scholar 

  • De Man P (2017) Luxembourg law on space resources rests on contentious relationship with international framework. KU Leuven Working Paper No. 189, KU Leuven, Leuven

    Google Scholar 

  • De Oliveira Bittencourt Neto O (2015) Defining the limits of outer space for regulatory purposes. Springer, Cham

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Frank RJ (2017) International and domestic laws on commercial use of space mineral resources. In: 68th International Astronautical Congress, Adelaide

    Google Scholar 

  • Gupta V (2016) Critique of the international law on the protection of the outer space environment. Astropolitics 14(1):20–43

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hobe S, De Man P (2017) National appropriation of outer space and state jurisdiction to regulate the exploitation, exploration and utilization of space resources. Ger J Air Space Law 66(3):460–475

    Google Scholar 

  • Hobe S, Schmidt-Tedd B, Schrogl KU, Goh G (eds) (2009) Cologne commentary on space law, vol 1. Carl Heymanns Verlag, Cologne

    Google Scholar 

  • Hobe S, Schmidt-Tedd B, Schrogl KU, Stubbe P (eds) (2013) Cologne commentary on space law, vol 2. Carl Heymanns Verlag, Cologne

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofmann M (2010) Planetary protection from a legal perspective: due diligence and national legislation. In: Hofman M, Rettberg P, Williamson M (eds) IAA cosmic study: protecting the environment of celestial bodies. IAA, Paris, pp 63–67

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofmann M (2017) Cospar recommendations in a new context? Environmental aspects of space mining. In: Blount PJ, Masson-Zwaan T, Moro-Aguilar R, Schrogl KU (eds) Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law 2016. Eleven International Publishing, The Hague, pp 201–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Kramer WR (2014) Extraterrestrial environmental impact assessment—a foreseeable prerequisite for wise decisions regarding outer space exploration, research and development. Space Policy 30(4):215–222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lenard RX (2017) Keynote: technology needs for exploiting asteroid resources. In: 68th International Astronautical Congress, Adelaide

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyall F (2010) Planetary protection from a legal perspective—general issues, in protecting the environment of celestial bodies. In: Hofmann M, Rettberg P, Williamson M (eds) IAA cosmic study: protecting the environment of celestial bodies. IAA, Paris, pp 55–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyall F, Larsen PB (2009) Space law: a treatise. Ashgate, Farnham

    Google Scholar 

  • Masson-Zwaan T, Palkowicz N (2017) Regulation of space resources rights: meeting the needs of states and private parties. Questions Int Law 35:2–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Mizushima A, Fujii K, Ishido S (2017) What is an appropriate interaction between international law and domestic legal systems to promote space resources development? Air Space Law 42(6):543–570

    Google Scholar 

  • Qizhi H (1988) Environmental impact of space activities and measures for international protection. J Space Law 16(2):117–127

    Google Scholar 

  • Shouping L (2017) China. IISL Directorate of studies, Background Paper—Does international space law either permit or prohibit the taking of resources in outer space and on celestial bodies and how is this relevant for national actors? What is the context and what are the contours and limits of this permission or prohibition? IISL, Paris, pp 17–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Tennen LI (2009–2010) Towards a new regime for exploitation of outer space mineral resources. Nebr Law Rev 88(4):794–814

    Google Scholar 

  • Volynskaja O (2016) Space resources exploitation from the international and domestic law perspectives, the Russian approach. In: Blount PJ, Masson-Zwaan T, Moro-Aguilar R, Schrogl K-U (eds) Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law, vol 59. Eleven International Publishing, The Hague, pp 291–300

    Google Scholar 

  • Von der Dunk F (2015) Handbook of space law. Edward Elgar, Northampton

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg, Luxembourg

    Mahulena Hofmann & Federico Bergamasco

Authors
  1. Mahulena Hofmann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Federico Bergamasco
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mahulena Hofmann .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Law, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany

    Marc Bungenberg

  2. Faculty of Law, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany

    Markus Krajewski

  3. School of Law, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK

    Christian J. Tams

  4. Competition and Regulation Institute, Leuphana University of Lüneburg, Lüneburg, Germany

    Jörg Philipp Terhechte

  5. Faculty of Law and Criminal Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland

    Andreas R. Ziegler

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Hofmann, M., Bergamasco, F. (2018). Mining in Outer Space: Legal Aspects. In: Bungenberg, M., Krajewski, M., Tams, C.J., Terhechte, J.P., Ziegler, A.R. (eds) European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2018. European Yearbook of International Economic Law, vol 9. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/8165_2018_9

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/8165_2018_9

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-97751-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-97752-2

  • eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation