Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover The Neurobiology of Childhood

Part of the book series: Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences ((CTBN,volume 16))

Abstract

Over the last two decades, there have been numerous technical and methodological advances available to clinicians and researchers to better understand attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and its etiology. Despite the growing body of literature investigating the disorder’s pathophysiology, ADHD remains a complex psychiatric disorder to characterize. This chapter will briefly review the literature on ADHD, with a focus on its history, the current genetic insights, neurophysiologic theories, and the use of neuroimaging to further understand the etiology. We address some of the major concerns that remain unclear about ADHD, including subtype instability, heterogeneity, and the underlying neural correlates that define the disorder. We highlight that the field of ADHD is rapidly evolving; the descriptions provided here will hopefully provide a sturdy foundation for which to build and improve our understanding of the disorder.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    The DSM-V changed the age of onset from age 7 to 12, reduced the cut point for diagnosing ADHD in adults from six symptoms to five symptoms, and allowed concurrent diagnosis of ADHD and autism spectrum disorder. These changes are expected to have minimal effects on epidemiology or clinical practice, but make the criteria more congruent with empirical findings.

  2. 2.

    One of the major hurdles in both fMRI and fcMRI data analysis is head movement. Children often move more than adults and patients more than controls. The typical approaches to movement correction, however, may not be sufficient when processing functional connectivity data. This is particularly relevant for hyperkinetic disorders such as ADHD. Recent reports suggest that traditional motion correction may not be controlling for the changes in signal intensity due to changes in head position (Fair et al. 2012; Power et al. 2012; Satterthwaite et al. 2012; Van Dijk et al. 2012). There have been several new investigations, which are emerging rapidly that propose new methodological approaches toward correcting for movement-related artifacts from the scanner. While it is not clear which measurements are superior per se, it is clear that additional steps need to be taken in fcMRI preprocessing (and fMRI data for that matter) to correct for so called “micro-movements,” and that our current knowledge of atypical brain activity in ADHD needs to be carefully scrutinized.

References

  • Achenbach T, Edelbrock C (1983) Manual for the child behavior checklist and revised behavior profile. University of Vermont Department of Psychiatry, Burlington

    Google Scholar 

  • Albayrak O, Friedel S, Schimmelmann BG, Hinney A, Hebebrand J (2008) Genetic aspects in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Neural transm 115(2):305–315. doi:10.1007/s00702-007-0839-9

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alberts-Corush J, Firestone P, Goodman JT (1986) Attention and impulsivity characteristics of the biological and adoptive parents of hyperactive and normal control children. Am J orthopsychiatry 56(3):413–423

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andrews-Hanna JR, Snyder AZ, Vincent JL, Lustig C, Head D, Raichle ME, Buckner RL (2007) Disruption of large-scale brain systems in advanced aging. Neuron 56(5):924–935

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Arbuthnott K, Frank J (2000) Executive control in set switching: residual switch cost and task-set inhibition. Can J Exp Psychol 54(1):33–41 (Revue canadienne de psychologie experimentale)

    Google Scholar 

  • Aron AR (2011) From reactive to proactive and selective control: developing a richer model for stopping inappropriate responses. Biol Psychiatry 69(12):e55–e68. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.07.024

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Aron AR, Robbins TW, Poldrack RA (2004) Inhibition and the right inferior frontal cortex. Trends Cogn Sci 8(4):170–177

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ashtari M, Kumra S, Bhaskar SL, Clarke T, Thaden E, Cervellione KL, Rhinewine J, Kane JM, Adesman A, Milanaik R, Maytal J, Diamond A, Szeszko P, Ardekani BA (2005) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a preliminary diffusion tensor imaging study. Biol Psychiatry 57(5):448–455. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.047

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Association AP (1968) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 2nd edn. American Psychiatric Association, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Association AP (1980) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 3rd edn. American Psychiatric Association, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Association AP (1987) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 3rd edn. Revised. American Psychiatric Association, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Association AP (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edn. American Psychiatric Association, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakker SC, van der Meulen EM, Buitelaar JK, Sandkuijl LA, Pauls DL, Monsuur AJ, van ‘t Slot R, Minderaa RB, Gunning WB, Pearson PL, Sinke RJ (2003) A whole-genome scan in 164 Dutch sib pairs with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: suggestive evidence for linkage on chromosomes 7p and 15q. Am J Hum Genet 72(5):1251–1260

    Google Scholar 

  • Banaschewski T, Brandeis D, Heinrich H, Albrecht B, Brunner E, Rothenberger A (2003) Association of ADHD and conduct disorder – brain electrical evidence for the existence of a distinct subtype. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 44(3):356–376

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA (1997) Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychol Bull 121(1):65–94

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA (2009) Advances in the diagnosis and subtyping of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: what may lie ahead for DSM-V. Revista de neurologia 48(Suppl 2):S101–S106

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA, Peters H (2012) The earliest reference to ADHD in the medical literature? Melchior Adam Weikard’s description in 1775 of “attention deficit” (Mangel der Aufmerksamkeit, Attentio Volubilis). J Attention Disord 16(8):623–630. doi:10.1177/1087054711432309

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnett R, Maruff P, Vance A, Luk ES, Costin J, Wood C, Pantelis C (2001) Abnormal executive function in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: the effect of stimulant medication and age on spatial working memory. Psychol Med 31(6):1107–11015

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barr CL, Xu C, Kroft J, Feng Y, Wigg K, Zai G, Tannock R, Schachar R, Malone M, Roberts W, Nothen MM, Grunhage F, Vandenbergh DJ, Uhl G, Sunohara G, King N, Kennedy JL (2001) Haplotype study of three polymorphisms at the dopamine transporter locus confirm linkage to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 49(4):333–339

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Basser PJ, Mattiello J, LeBihan D (1994) MR diffusion tensor spectroscopy and imaging. Biophys J 66(1):259–267

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Batty MJ, Liddle EB, Pitiot A, Toro R, Groom MJ, Scerif G, Liotti M, Liddle PF, Paus T, Hollis C (2010) Cortical gray matter in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a structural magnetic resonance imaging study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 49(3):229–238

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bauermeister JJ, Barkley RA, Bauermeister JA, Martinez JV, McBurnett K (2012) Validity of the sluggish cognitive tempo, inattention, and hyperactivity symptom dimensions: neuropsychological and psychosocial correlates. J Abnorm Child Psychol 40(5):683–697. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9602-7

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bava S, Thayer R, Jacobus J, Ward M, Jernigan TL, Tapert SF (2010) Longitudinal characterization of white matter maturation during adolescence. Brain Res 1327:38–46. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2010.02.066

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Baxter MG, Murray EA (2002) The amygdala and reward. Nat Rev Neurosci 3(7):563–573. doi:10.1038/nrn875

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beaulieu C, Plewes C, Paulson LA, Roy D, Snook L, Concha L, Phillips L (2005) Imaging brain connectivity in children with diverse reading ability. NeuroImage 25(4):1266–1271

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Becker MG, Isaac W, Hynd GW (1987) Neuropsychological development of nonverbal behaviors attributed to “frontal lobe” functioning. Dev neuropsychol 3:275–298

    Google Scholar 

  • Benes FM, Turtle M, Khan Y, Farol P (1994) Myelination of a key relay zone in the hippocampal formation occurs in the human brain during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51(6):477–484

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berger A, Posner MI (2000) Pathologies of brain attentional networks. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 24(1):3–5

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman J, Faraone SV, Keenan K, Benjamin J, Krifcher B, Moore C, Sprich-Buckminster S, Ugaglia K, Jellinek MS, Steingard R et al (1992) Further evidence for family-genetic risk factors in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Patterns of comorbidity in probands and relatives psychiatrically and pediatrically referred samples. Arch Gen Psychiatry 49(9):728–738

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman J, Faraone SV, Keenan K, Knee D, Tsuang MT (1990a) Family-genetic and psychosocial risk factors in DSM-III attention deficit disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 29(4):526–533

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman J, Keenan K, Faraone SV (1990b) Parent-based diagnosis of attention deficit disorder predicts a diagnosis based on teacher report. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 29(5):698–701

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biswal B, Yetkin FZ, Haughton VM, Hyde JS (1995) Functional connectivity in the motor cortex of resting human brain using echo-planar MRI. Magnetic resonance in medicine: official journal of the Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine/Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine 34(4):537–541

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bokde AL, Lopez-Bayo P, Meindl T, Pechler S, Born C, Faltraco F, Teipel SJ, Moller HJ, Hampel H (2006) Functional connectivity of the fusiform gyrus during a face-matching task in subjects with mild cognitive impairment. Brain : a journal of neurology 129(Pt 5):1113–1124

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bradley C (1937) The behaviour of children receiving Benzedrine. Am J Psychiatry 94:577–585

    Google Scholar 

  • Braver TS, Cole MW, Yarkoni T (2010) Vive les differences! Individual variation in neural mechanisms of executive control. Curr Opin Neurobiol 20(2):242–250. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2010.03.002

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Braver TS, Reynolds JR, Donaldson DI (2003) Neural mechanisms of transient and sustained cognitive control during task switching. Neuron 39(4):713–726

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown TT, Lugar HM, Coalson RS, Miezin FM, Petersen SE, Schlaggar BL (2005) Developmental changes in human cerebral functional organization for word generation. Cereb Cortex 15:275–290

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bunge SA, Dudukovic NM, Thomason ME, Vaidya CJ, Gabrieli JD (2002) Immature frontal lobe contributions to cognitive control in children: evidence from fMRI. Neuron 33(2):301–311

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bunge SA, Wright SB (2007) Neurodevelopmental changes in working memory and cognitive control. Curr Opin Neurobiol 17(2):243–250

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burks H (1960) The hyperkinetic child. Exceptional Children 27:18–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Burt SA (2009) Rethinking environmental contributions to child and adolescent psychopathology: a meta-analysis of shared environmental influences. Psychol Bull 135(4):608–637. doi:10.1037/a0015702

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bush G, Frazier JA, Rauch SL, Seidman LJ, Whalen PJ, Jenike MA, Rosen BR, Biederman J (1999) Anterior cingulate cortex dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder revealed by fMRI and the Counting Stroop. Biol Psychiatry 45(12):1542–1552

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buss DM (1991) Evolutionary personality psychology. Annu Rev Psychol 42:459–491. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.42.020191.002331

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cardinal RN, Pennicott DR, Sugathapala CL, Robbins TW, Everitt BJ (2001) Impulsive choice induced in rats by lesions of the nucleus accumbens core. Science 292(5526):2499–2501. doi:10.1126/science.1060818

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson CL, Mann M (2002) Sluggish cognitive tempo predicts a different pattern of impairment in the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, predominantly inattentive type. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol (the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53) 31(1):123–129. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3101_14

    Google Scholar 

  • Carmona S, Vilarroya O, Bielsa A, Tremols V, Soliva JC, Rovira M, Tomas J, Raheb C, Gispert JD, Batlle S, Bulbena A (2005) Global and regional gray matter reductions in ADHD: a voxel-based morphometric study. Neurosci Lett 389(2):88–93. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2005.07.020

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Casey BJ, Cohen JD, Jezzard P, Turner R, Noll DC, Trainor RJ, Giedd J, Kaysen D, Hertz-Pannier L, Rapoport JL (1995) Activation of prefrontal cortex in children during a nonspatial working memory task with functional MRI. NeuroImage 2(3):221–229

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Casey BJ, Epstein JN, Buhle J, Liston C, Davidson MC, Tonev ST, Spicer J, Niogi S, Millner AJ, Reiss A, Garrett A, Hinshaw SP, Greenhill LL, Shafritz KM, Vitolo A, Kotler LA, Jarrett MA, Glover G (2007) Frontostriatal connectivity and its role in cognitive control in parent-child dyads with ADHD. The American journal of psychiatry 164(11):1729–1736. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.06101754

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Casey BJ, Thomas KM, Davidson MC, Kunz K, Franzen PL (2002) Dissociating striatal and hippocampal function developmentally with a stimulus-response compatibility task. J Neurosci (the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience) 22(19):8647–8652

    Google Scholar 

  • Casey BJ, Tottenham N, Liston C, Durston S (2005) Imaging the developing brain: what have we learned about cognitive development? Trends Cogn Sci 9(3):104–110

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Casey BJ, Trainor RJ, Orendi JL, Schubert AB, Nystrom LE, Giedd JN, Castellanos FX, Haxby JV, Noll DC, Cohen JD, Forman SD, Dahl RE, Rapoport JL (1997) A developmental functional MRI study of prefrontal activation during performance of a go-no-go task. J Cogn Neurosci 9(6):835–847

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, Eckburg P, Marsh WL, Vaituzis AC, Kaysen D, Hamburger SD, Rapoport JL (1994) Quantitative morphology of the caudate nucleus in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 151(12):1791–1796

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, Marsh WL, Hamburger SD, Vaituzis AC, Dickstein DP, Sarfatti SE, Vauss YC, Snell JW, Lange N, Kaysen D, Krain AL, Ritchie GF, Rajapakse JC, Rapoport JL (1996) Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53(7):607–616

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos FX, Lee PP, Sharp W, Jeffries NO, Greenstein DK, Clasen LS, Blumenthal JD, James RS, Ebens CL, Walter JM, Zijdenbos A, Evans AC, Giedd JN, Rapoport JL (2002) Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Med Assoc, JAMA 288(14):1740–1748

    Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos FX, Margulies DS, Kelly AMC, Uddin LQ, Ghaffari M, Kirsch A, Shaw D, Shehzad Z, Di Martino A, Biswal B, Sonuga-Barke EJS, Rotrosen J, Adler LA, Milham MP (2008) Cingulate-precuneus interactions: A new locus of dysfunction in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 63:332–337

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos FX, Tannock R (2002) Neuroscience of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the search for endophenotypes. Nat Rev Neurosci 3(8):617–628. doi:10.1038/nrn896

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman BP, Goldberg LR (2011) Replicability and 40-year predictive power of childhood ARC types. J Pers Soc Psychol 101(3):593–606. doi:10.1037/a0024289

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chess S (1960) Diagnosis and treatment of the hyperactive child. NY State J Med 60:2379–2385

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Church JA, Fair DA, Dosenbach NU, Petersen SE, Schlaggar BL (2007) Using functional connectivity MRI to study cognitive development: the abnormal structure of distinct task control networks in Tourette syndrome. Society for Neuroscience, San Diego

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark C, Prior M, Kinsella GJ (2000) Do executive function deficits differentiate between adolescents with ADHD and oppositional defiant/conduct disorder? A neuropsychological study using the six elements test and Hayling sentence completion test. J Abnorm Child Psychol 28(5):403–414

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conturo TE, Lori NF, Cull TS, Akbudak E, Snyder A, Shimony JS, McKinstry RC, Burton H, Raichle ME (1999) Tracking neuronal fiber pathways in the living human brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:10422–10427

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cook EH Jr, Stein MA, Krasowski MD, Cox NJ, Olkon DM, Kieffer JE, Leventhal BL (1995) Association of attention-deficit disorder and the dopamine transporter gene. Am J Hum Genet 56(4):993–998

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Corbetta M, Shulman GL (2002) Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain. Nat Rev Neurosci 3:201–215

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costa Dias TG, Wilson VB, Bathula DR, Iyer SP, Mills KL, Thurlow BL, Stevens CA, Musser ED, Carpenter SD, Grayson DS, Mitchell SH, Nigg JT, Fair DA (2013) Reward circuit connectivity relates to delay discounting in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Eur neuropsychopharmacol (the journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology) 23(1):33–45. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2012.10.015

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crone EA, Wendelken C, Donohue SE, Bunge SA (2006) Neural evidence for dissociable components of task-switching. Cereb Cortex 16(4):475–486

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson RJ, Ekman P, Saron CD, Senulis JA, Friesen WV (1990) Approach-withdrawal and cerebral asymmetry: emotional expression and brain physiology. I. J Pers Soc Psychol 58(2):330–341

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Depue BE, Burgess GC, Bidwell LC, Willcutt EG, Banich MT (2010) Behavioral performance predicts grey matter reductions in the right inferior frontal gyrus in young adults with combined type ADHD. Psychiatry Res 182(3):231–237. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.01.012

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dosenbach NU, Fair DA, Miezin FM, Cohen AL, Wenger KK, Dosenbach RAT, Fox MD, Snyder AZ, Vincent JL, Raichle ME, Schlaggar BL, Petersen SE (2007) Distinct brain networks for adaptive and stable task control in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104(26):11073–11078

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dosenbach NU, Visscher KM, Palmer ED, Miezin FM, Wenger KK, Kang HC, Burgund ED, Grimes AL, Schlaggar BL, Petersen SE (2006) A core system for the implementation of task sets. Neuron 50(5):799–812

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Douek P, Turner R, Pekar J, Patronas N, Le Bihan D (1991) MR color mapping of myelin fiber orientation. J Comput Assist Tomogr 15(6):923–929

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Douglas VI (1972) Stop, look, and listen: the problem of sustained attention and impulse control in hyperactive and normal children. Can J Behav Sci 4:259–282

    Google Scholar 

  • Doyle AE (2006) Executive functions in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 67(8):21–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Durston S (2008) Converging methods in studying attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: what can we learn from neuroimaging and genetics? Dev Psychopathol 20(4):1133–1143. doi:S0954579408000539 [pii] 10.1017/S0954579408000539

    Google Scholar 

  • Durston S, Casey BJ (2006) What have we learned about cognitive development from neuroimaging? Neuropsychologia 44(11):2149–2157. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.10.010

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Durston S, Mulder M, Casey BJ, Ziermans T, van Engeland H (2006) Activation in ventral prefrontal cortex is sensitive to genetic vulnerability for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 60(10):1062–1070. doi:S0006-3223(06)00389-1 [pii] 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.12.020

    Google Scholar 

  • Durston S, Tottenham NT, Thomas KM, Davidson MC, Eigsti IM, Yang Y, Ulug AM, Casey BJ (2003) Differential patterns of striatal activation in young children with and without ADHD. Biol Psychiatry 53(10):871–878

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eagle DM, Robbins TW (2003) Lesions of the medial prefrontal cortex or nucleus accumbens core do not impair inhibitory control in rats performing a stop-signal reaction time task. Behav Brain Res 146(1–2):131–144

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ebaugh FG (1923) Neuropsychiatric sequelae of acute epidemic encephalitis in children. Am J Dis Child 25:89–97

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg N, Morris AS (2002) Children’s emotion-related regulation. Adv Child Dev Behav 30:189–229

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellison-Wright I, Ellison-Wright Z, Bullmore E (2008) Structural brain change in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder identified by meta-analysis. BMC psychiatry 8:51. doi:10.1186/1471-244x-8-51

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fair DA, Bathula D, Mills KL, Dias TG, Blythe MS, Zhang D, Snyder AZ, Raichle ME, Stevens AA, Nigg JT, Nagel BJ (2010a) Maturing thalamocortical functional connectivity across development. Front Syst Neurosci 4:10. doi:10.3389/fnsys.2010.00010

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fair DA, Bathula D, Nikolas MA, Nigg JT (2012a) Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109(17):6769–6774. doi:10.1073/pnas.1115365109

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fair DA, Cohen AL, Dosenbach NU, Church JA, Miezin FM, Barch DM, Raichle ME, Petersen SE, Schlaggar BL (2008) The maturing architecture of the brain’s default network. PNAS 105(10):4028–4032

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fair DA, Cohen AL, Power JD, Dosenbach NU, Church JA, Miezin FM, Schlaggar BL, Petersen SE (2009) Functional brain networks develop from a “local to distributed” organization. PLoS Comput Biol 5(5):e1000381. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000381

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fair DA, Dosenbach NUF, Church JA, Cohen AL, Brahmbhatt S, Miezin FM, Barch DM, Raichle ME, Petersen SE, Schlaggar BL (2007) Development of distinct control networks through segregation and integration. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104(33):13507–13512

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fair DA, Nigg JT, Iyer S, Bathula D, Mills KL, Dosenbach NU, Schlaggar BL, Mennes M, Gutman D, Bangaru S, Buitelaar JK, Dickstein DP, Di Martino A, Kennedy DN, Kelly C, Luna B, Schweitzer JB, Velanova K, Wang YF, Mostofsky S, Castellanos FX, Milham MP (2012b) Distinct neural signatures detected for ADHD subtypes after controlling for micro-movements in resting state functional connectivity MRI data. Front Syst Neurosci 6:80. doi:10.3389/fnsys.2012.00080

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fair DA, Posner J, Nagel BJ, Bathula D, Dias TG, Mills KL, Blythe MS, Giwa A, Schmitt CF, Nigg JT (2010b) Atypical default network connectivity in youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 68(12):1084–1091. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.07.003

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone SV, Biederman J, Keenan K, Tsuang MT (1991) Separation of DSM-III attention deficit disorder and conduct disorder: evidence from a family-genetic study of American child psychiatric patients. Psychol Med 21(1):109–121

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone SV, Biederman J, Mick E, Williamson S, Wilens T, Spencer T, Weber W, Jetton J, Kraus I, Pert J, Zallen B (2000a) Family study of girls with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 157(7):1077–1083

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone SV, Biederman J, Milberger S (1994) An exploratory study of ADHD among second-degree relatives of ADHD children. Biol Psychiatry 35(6):398–402

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone SV, Biederman J, Monuteaux MC (2000b) Toward guidelines for pedigree selection in genetic studies of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Genet Epidemiol 18(1):1–16. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2272(200001)18:1<1::AID-GEPI1>3.0.CO;2-X [pii] 10.1002/(SICI)1098-2272(200001)18:1<1::AID-GEPI1>3.0.CO;2-X

  • Faraone SV, Doyle AE, Mick E, Biederman J (2001) Meta-analysis of the association between the 7-repeat allele of the dopamine D(4) receptor gene and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 158(7):1052–1057

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone SV, Perlis RH, Doyle AE, Smoller JW, Goralnick JJ, Holmgren MA, Sklar P (2005) Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 57(11):1313–1323. doi:S0006-3223(04)01226-0 [pii] 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.024

    Google Scholar 

  • Filipek PA, Semrud-Clikeman M, Steingard RJ, Renshaw PF, Kennedy DN, Biederman J (1997) Volumetric MRI analysis comparing subjects having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with normal controls. Neurology 48(3):589–601

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher SE, Francks C, McCracken JT, McGough JJ, Marlow AJ, MacPhie IL, Newbury DF, Crawford LR, Palmer CG, Woodward JA, Del’Homme M, Cantwell DP, Nelson SF, Monaco AP, Smalley SL (2002) A genomewide scan for loci involved in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Am J Hum Genet 70(5):1183–1196. doi:10.1086/340112

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fox MD, Corbetta M, Snyder AZ, Vincent JL, Raichle ME (2006) Spontaneous neuronal activity distinguishes human dorsal and ventral attention systems. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103(26):10046–10051

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fransson P, Skiold B, Horsch S, Nordell A, Blennow M, Lagercrantz H, Aden U (2007) Resting-state networks in the infant brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104(39):15531–15536

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fryer SL, Frank LR, Spadoni AD, Theilmann RJ, Nagel BJ, Schweinsburg AD, Tapert SF (2008) Microstructural integrity of the corpus callosum linked with neuropsychological performance in adolescents. Brain Cogn 67(2):225–233. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2008.01.009

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gershon J (2002) A meta-analytic review of gender differences in ADHD. J Attention Disord 5(3):143–154

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Giedd JN, Blumenthal J, Jeffries NO, Castellanos FX, Liu H, Zijdenbos A, Paus T, Evans AC, Rapoport JL (1999) Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study. Nat Neurosci 2(10):861–863

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giedd JN, Snell JW, Lange N, Rajapakse JC, Casey BJ, Kozuch PL, Vaituzis AC, Vauss YC, Hamburger SD, Kaysen D, Rapoport JL (1996) Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging of human brain development: ages 4–18. Cereb Cortex 6(4):551–560

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert SJ, Spengler S, Simons JS, Steele JD, Lawrie SM, Frith CD, Burgess PW (2006) Functional specialization within rostral prefrontal cortex (area 10): a meta-analysis. J Cogn Neurosci 18(6):932–948

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gizer IR, Ficks C, Waldman ID (2009) Candidate gene studies of ADHD: a meta-analytic review. Hum Genet 126(1):51–90. doi:10.1007/s00439-009-0694-x

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gogtay N, Giedd JN, Lusk L, Hayashi KM, Greenstein D, Vaituzis AC, Nugent TF 3rd, Herman DH, Clasen LS, Toga AW, Rapoport JL, Thompson PM (2004) Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101(21):8174–8179

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Goldman D, Oroszi G, Ducci F (2005) The genetics of addictions: uncovering the genes. Nat Rev Genet 6(7):521–532. doi:10.1038/nrg1635

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goyette CH, Conners CK, Ulrich RF (1978) Normative data on revised conners parent and teacher rating scales. J Abnorm Child Psychol 6(2):221–236

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greicius MD, Srivastava G, Reiss AL, Menon V (2004) Default-mode network activity distinguishes Alzheimer’s disease from healthy aging: evidence from functional MRI. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101(13):4637–4642

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hampson M, Driesen NR, Skudlarski P, Gore JC, Constable RT (2006a) Brain connectivity related to working memory performance. J Neurosci (the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience) 26(51):13338–13343

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hampson M, Tokoglu F, Sun Z, Schafer RJ, Skudlarski P, Gore JC, Constable RT (2006b) Connectivity-behavior analysis reveals that functional connectivity between left BA39 and Broca’s area varies with reading ability. NeuroImage 31(2):513–519

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrington KM, Waldman ID (2010) Evaluating the utility of sluggish cognitive tempo in discriminating among DSM-IV ADHD subtypes. J Abnorm Child Psychol 38(2):173–184. doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9355-8

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hart H, Radua J, Mataix-Cols D, Rubia K (2012) Meta-analysis of fMRI studies of timing in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neurosci Biobehav Rev 36(10):2248–2256. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.08.003

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hasson R, Fine JG (2012) Gender differences among children with ADHD on continuous performance tests: a meta-analytic review. J Attention Disord 16(3):190–198. doi:10.1177/1087054711427398

    Google Scholar 

  • Hebebrand J, Dempfle A, Saar K, Thiele H, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Linder M, Kiefl H, Remschmidt H, Hemminger U, Warnke A, Knolker U, Heiser P, Friedel S, Hinney A, Schafer H, Nurnberg P, Konrad K (2006) A genome-wide scan for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in 155 German sib-pairs. Mol Psychiatry 11(2):196–205. doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4001761

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw SP, Carte ET, Sami N, Treuting JJ, Zupan BA (2002) Preadolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: II. Neuropsychological performance in relation to subtypes and individual classification. J Consult Clin Psychol 70(5):1099–1111

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hohman LB (1922) Post-encephalitic behavior disorders in children. Johns Hopkins Hosp Bull 33:372–375

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen PS, Hinshaw SP, Kraemer HC, Lenora N, Newcorn JH, Abikoff HB, March JS, Arnold LE, Cantwell DP, Conners CK, Elliott GR, Greenhill LL, Hechtman L, Hoza B, Pelham WE, Severe JB, Swanson JM, Wells KC, Wigal T, Vitiello B (2001) ADHD comorbidity findings from the MTA study: comparing comorbid subgroups. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 40(2):147–158

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen PS, Martin D, Cantwell DP (1997) Comorbidity in ADHD: implications for research, practice, and DSM-V. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 36(8):1065–1079. doi:10.1097/00004583-199708000-00014

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johansen-Berg H, Rushworth MF (2009) Using diffusion imaging to study human connectional anatomy. Annu Rev Neurosci 32:75–94. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135735

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson MH, Griffin R, Csibra G, Halit H, Farroni T, de Haan M, Tucker LA, Baron-Cohen S, Richards J (2005) The emergence of the social brain network: evidence from typical and atypical development. Dev Psychopathol 17(3):599–619

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Just MA, Cherkassky VL, Keller TA, Kana RK, Minshew NJ (2007) Functional and anatomical cortical underconnectivity in autism: evidence from an FMRI study of an executive function task and corpus callosum morphometry. Cereb Cortex 17(4):951–961

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karatekin C, Asarnow RF (1998) Working memory in childhood-onset schizophrenia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Res 80(2):165–176

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly AM, Di Martino A, Uddin LQ, Shehzad Z, Gee DG, Reiss PT, Margulies DS, Castellanos FX, Milham MP (2009) Development of anterior cingulate functional connectivity from late childhood to early adulthood. Cereb Cortex 19(3):640–657. doi:bhn117 [pii] 10.1093/cercor/bhn117

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein RG, Mannuzza S, Olazagasti MA, Roizen E, Hutchison JA, Lashua EC, Castellanos FX (2012) Clinical and functional outcome of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder 33 years later. Arch Gen Psychiatry 69(12):1295–1303. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2012.271

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Klenberg L, Korkman M, Lahti-Nuuttila P (2001) Differential development of attention and executive functions in 3- to 12-year-old Finnish children. Dev Neuropsychol 20(1):407–428

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koch MA, Norris DG, Hund-Georgiadis M (2002) An investigation of functional and anatomical connectivity using magnetic resonance imaging. NeuroImage 16(1):241–250

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Konrad A, Dielentheis TF, El Masri D, Bayerl M, Fehr C, Gesierich T, Vucurevic G, Stoeter P, Winterer G (2010) Disturbed structural connectivity is related to inattention and impulsivity in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Eur J Neurosci 31(5):912–919. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2010.07110.x

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Konrad K, Neufang S, Hanisch C, Fink GR, Herpertz-Dahlmann B (2006) Dysfunctional attentional networks in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: evidence from an event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol Psychiatry 59(7):643–651

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lahey BB, Pelham WE, Loney J, Lee SS, Willcut E (2005) Instability of the DSM-IV subtypes of ADHD from preschool through elementary school. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62(8):896–902

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lahey BB, Pelham WE, Schaughency EA, Atkins MS, Murphy HA, Hynd G, Russo M, Hartdagen S, Lorys-Vernon A (1988) Dimensions and types of attention deficit disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 27(3):330–335. doi:10.1097/00004583-198805000-00011

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence KE, Levitt JG, Loo SK, Ly R, Yee V, O’Neill J, Alger J, Narr KL (2013) White matter microstructure in subjects with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and their siblings. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 52(4):431–440.e434. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.01.010

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Bihan D, Karni A (1995) Applications of magnetic resonance imaging to the study of human brain function. Curr Opin Neurobiol 5(2):231–237

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lebel C, Beaulieu C (2009) Lateralization of the arcuate fasciculus from childhood to adulthood and its relation to cognitive abilities in children. Hum Brain Mapp 30(11):3563–3573. doi:10.1002/hbm.20779

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lenroot RK, Giedd JN (2006) Brain development in children and adolescents: insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 30(6):718–729

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leopold DA, Murayama Y, Logothetis NK (2003) Very slow activity fluctuations in monkey visual cortex: implications for functional brain imaging. Cereb Cortex 13(4):422–433

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levin HS, Culhane KA, Hartmann J, Evankovich K, Mattson AJ, Harward H, Ringholz G, Ewing-Cobbs L, Fletcher JM (1991) Developmental changes in performance on tests of purported frontal lobe functioning. Dev Neuropsychol 7:377–395

    Google Scholar 

  • Liston C, Watts R, Tottenham N, Davidson MC, Niogi S, Ulug AM, Casey BJ (2006) Frontostriatal microstructure modulates efficient recruitment of cognitive control. Cereb Cortex 16(4):553–560

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe MJ, Mock BJ, Sorenson JA (1998) Functional connectivity in single and multislice echoplanar imaging using resting-state fluctuations. NeuroImage 7(2):119–132

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luman M, Oosterlaan J, Sergeant JA (2005) The impact of reinforcement contingencies on AD/HD: a review and theoretical appraisal. Clin Psychol Rev 25(2):183–213. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2004.11.001

    Google Scholar 

  • Luna B, Sweeney JA (2001) Studies of brain and cognitive maturation through childhood and adolescence: a strategy for testing neurodevelopmental hypotheses. Schizophr Bull 27(3):443–455

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luna B, Thulborn KR, Munoz DP, Merriam EP, Garver KE, Minshew NJ, Keshavan MS, Genovese CR, Eddy WF, Sweeney JA (2001) Maturation of widely distributed brain function subserves cognitive development. NeuroImage 13(5):786–793

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luria AR (1966/1980) Higher cortical functions in man (trans: Haigh B). 2nd edn. Basic Books, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyon G, Krasnegor N (1996) Attention, memory, and executive function. Brookes Publishing, Baltimore

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackie S, Shaw P, Lenroot R, Pierson R, Greenstein DK, Nugent TF 3rd, Sharp WS, Giedd JN, Rapoport JL (2007) Cerebellar development and clinical outcome in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 164(4):647–655. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.164.4.647

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Madsen KS, Baare WF, Vestergaard M, Skimminge A, Ejersbo LR, Ramsoy TZ, Gerlach C, Akeson P, Paulson OB, Jernigan TL (2010) Response inhibition is associated with white matter microstructure in children. Neuropsychologia 48(4):854–862. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.11.001

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAlonan GM, Cheung V, Cheung C, Chua SE, Murphy DG, Suckling J, Tai KS, Yip LK, Leung P, Ho TP (2007) Mapping brain structure in attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: A voxel-based MRI study of regional grey and white matter volume. Psychiatry Res 154(2):171–180

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLean A, Dowson J, Toone B, Young S, Bazanis E, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ (2004) Characteristic neurocognitive profile associated with adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychol Med 34(4):681–692. doi:10.1017/S0033291703001296

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mennes M, Vega Potler N, Kelly C, Di Martino A, Castellanos FX, Milham MP (2011) Resting state functional connectivity correlates of inhibitory control in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Front Psychiatry 2:83. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2011.00083

  • Miller EK, Cohen JD (2001) An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annu Rev Neurosci 24:167–202

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mills DL, Neville HJ (1997) Electrophysiological studies of language and language impairment. Semin Pediatr Neurol 4(2):125–134

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mills KL, Bathula D, Dias TG, Iyer SP, Fenesy MC, Musser ED, Stevens CA, Thurlow BL, Carpenter SD, Nagel BJ, Nigg JT, Fair DA (2012) Altered cortico-striatal-thalamic connectivity in relation to spatial working memory capacity in children with ADHD. Front Psychiatry 3:2. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2012.00002

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mori S, Barker PB (1999) Diffusion magnetic resonance imaging: its principle and applications. Anat Rec 257(3):102–109

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muraven M, Baumeister RF (2000) Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: does self-control resemble a muscle? Psychol Bull 126(2):247–259

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nagel BJ, Bathula D, Herting M, Schmitt C, Kroenke CD, Fair D, Nigg JT (2011) Altered white matter microstructure in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 50(3):283–292. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.12.003

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nagy Z, Westerberg H, Klingberg T (2004) Maturation of white matter is associated with the development of cognitive functions during childhood. J Cogn Neurosci 16(7):1227–1233

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neale BM, Medland SE, Ripke S, Asherson P, Franke B, Lesch KP, Faraone SV, Nguyen TT, Schafer H, Holmans P, Daly M, Steinhausen HC, Freitag C, Reif A, Renner TJ, Romanos M, Romanos J, Walitza S, Warnke A, Meyer J, Palmason H, Buitelaar J, Vasquez AA, Lambregts-Rommelse N, Gill M, Anney RJ, Langely K, O’Donovan M, Williams N, Owen M, Thapar A, Kent L, Sergeant J, Roeyers H, Mick E, Biederman J, Doyle A, Smalley S, Loo S, Hakonarson H, Elia J, Todorov A, Miranda A, Mulas F, Ebstein RP, Rothenberger A, Banaschewski T, Oades RD, Sonuga-Barke E, McGough J, Nisenbaum L, Middleton F, Hu X, Nelson S, Psychiatric GCAS (2010) Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 49(9):884–897. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.06.008

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg JT (1999) The ADHD response-inhibition deficit as measured by the Stop Task: replication with DSM-IV combined type, extension, and qualification. J Abnorm Child Psychol 27(5):393–402

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigg JT (2001) Is ADHD a disinhibitory disorder? Psychol Bull, 127(5):571–598

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigg JT (2005) Neuropsychologic theory and findings in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the state of the field and salient challenges for the coming decade. Biol Psychiatry 57(11):1424–1435

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg JT (2013) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and adverse health outcomes. Clin Psychol Rev 33(2):215–228. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.11.005

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg JT, Barkley RA (In press) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In: Mash E, Barkley RA (eds) Developmental psychopathology. Guilford Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigg JT, Blaskey LG, Huang-Pollock CL, Rappley MD (2002) Neuropsychological executive functions and DSM-IV ADHD subtypes. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 41(1):59–66

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg JT, Casey BJ (2005) An integrative theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder based on the cognitive and affective neurosciences. Dev Psychopathol 17(3):785–806. doi:S0954579405050376 [pii] 10.1017/S0954579405050376

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigg JT, Goldsmith HH, Sachek J (2004) Temperament and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: the development of a multiple pathway model. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol (the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53) 33(1):42–53. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3301_5

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigg JT, Hinshaw SP, Carte ET, Treuting JJ (1998) Neuropsychological correlates of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: explainable by comorbid disruptive behavior or reading problems? J Abnorm Psychol 107(3):468–480

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg JT, Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Sonuga-Barke EJ (2005) Causal heterogeneity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: do we need neuropsychologically impaired subtypes? Biol Psychiatry 57(11):1224–1230. doi:S0006-3223(04)00939-4 [pii] 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.025

    Google Scholar 

  • Nijmeijer JS, Hartman CA, Rommelse NN, Altink ME, Buschgens CJ, Fliers EA, Franke B, Minderaa RB, Ormel J, Sergeant JA, Verhulst FC, Buitelaar JK, Hoekstra PJ (2010) Perinatal risk factors interacting with catechol O-methyltransferase and the serotonin transporter gene predict ASD symptoms in children with ADHD. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 51(11):1242–1250. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02277.x

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Niogi SN, McCandliss BD (2006) Left lateralized white matter microstructure accounts for individual differences in reading ability and disability. Neuropsychologia 44(11):2178–2188

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nir Y, Hasson U, Levy I, Yeshurun Y, Malach R (2006) Widespread functional connectivity and fMRI fluctuations in human visual cortex in the absence of visual stimulation. NeuroImage 30(4):1313–1324

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nucifora PG, Verma R, Lee SK, Melhem ER (2007) Diffusion-tensor MR imaging and tractography: exploring brain microstructure and connectivity. Radiology 245(2):367–384. doi:10.1148/radiol.2452060445

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Doherty JP, Dayan P, Friston K, Critchley H, Dolan RJ (2003) Temporal difference models and reward-related learning in the human brain. Neuron 38(2):329–337

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ogdie MN, Macphie IL, Minassian SL, Yang M, Fisher SE, Francks C, Cantor RM, McCracken JT, McGough JJ, Nelson SF, Monaco AP, Smalley SL (2003) A genomewide scan for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in an extended sample: suggestive linkage on 17p11. Am J Hum Genet 72(5):1268–1279. doi:10.1086/375139

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Olesen PJ, Nagy Z, Westerberg H, Klingberg T (2003) Combined analysis of DTI and fMRI data reveals a joint maturation of white and grey matter in a fronto-parietal network. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res 18(1):48–57

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Passler MA, Isaac W, Hynd GW (1985) Neuropsychological development of behavior attributed to frontal lobe functioning in children. Dev Neuropsychol 1:349–370

    Google Scholar 

  • Paus T (2005) Mapping brain maturation and cognitive development during adolescence. Trends Cogn Sci 9(2):60–68

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pelham WE, Foster EM, Robb JA (2007) The economic impact of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. J Pediatr Psychol 32(6):711–727

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pennington BF (1997) Dimensions of executive functions in normal and abnormal development. In: Krasnegor N, Lyon R, Goldman-Rakic P (eds) Development of the prefrontal cortex: evolution, neurobiology, and behavior. Brookes Publishing, Baltimore, pp 265–281

    Google Scholar 

  • Pennington BF, Ozonoff S (1996) Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 37(1):51–87

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petersen SE, Posner MI (2012) The attention system of the human brain: 20 years after. Annu Rev Neurosci 35:73–89. doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-062111-150525

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pfefferbaum A, Mathalon DH, Sullivan EV, Rawles JM, Zipursky RB, Lim KO (1994) A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study of changes in brain morphology from infancy to late adulthood. Arch Neurol 51(9):874–887

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plessen KJ, Bansal R, Zhu H, Whiteman R, Amat J, Quackenbush GA, Martin L, Durkin K, Blair C, Royal J, Hugdahl K, Peterson BS (2006) Hippocampus and amygdala morphology in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63(7):795–807. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.7.795

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Plichta MM, Scheres A (2013) Ventral-striatal responsiveness during reward anticipation in ADHD and its relation to trait impulsivity in the healthy population: a meta-analytic review of the fMRI literature. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.07.012

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Posner MI, Petersen SE (1990) The attention system of the human brain. Annu Rev Neurosci 13:25–42

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qiu D, Tan LH, Zhou K, Khong PL (2008) Diffusion tensor imaging of normal white matter maturation from late childhood to young adulthood: voxel-wise evaluation of mean diffusivity, fractional anisotropy, radial and axial diffusivities, and correlation with reading development. NeuroImage 41(2):223–232. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.02.023

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qiu MG, Ye Z, Li QY, Liu GJ, Xie B, Wang J (2011) Changes of brain structure and function in ADHD children. Brain Topogr 24(3–4):243–252. doi:10.1007/s10548-010-0168-4

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quigley M, Cordes D, Turski P, Moritz C, Haughton V, Seth R, Meyerand ME (2003) Role of the corpus callosum in functional connectivity. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 24(2):208–212

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rivero O, Sich S, Popp S, Schmitt A, Franke B, Lesch KP (2013) Impact of the ADHD-susceptibility gene CDH13 on development and function of brain networks. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol (the journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology) 23(6):492–507. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2012.06.009

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins TW, Everitt BJ (1992) Functions of dopamine in the dorsal and ventral striatum. Semin Neurosci 4(2):119–127

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers RD, Ramnani N, Mackay C, Wilson JL, Jezzard P, Carter CS, Smith SM (2004) Distinct portions of anterior cingulate cortex and medial prefrontal cortex are activated by reward processing in separable phases of decision-making cognition. Biol Psychiatry 55(6):594–602. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.11.012

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rombouts S, Scheltens P (2005) Functional connectivity in elderly controls and AD patients using resting state fMRI: a pilot study. Curr Alzheimer Res 2(2):115–116

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rubia K, Overmeyer S, Taylor E, Brammer M, Williams SC, Simmons A, Bullmore ET (1999) Hypofrontality in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during higher-order motor control: a study with functional MRI. Am J Psychiatry 156(6):891–896

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rushworth MF, Buckley MJ, Gough PM, Alexander IH, Kyriazis D, McDonald KR, Passingham RE (2005) Attentional selection and action selection in the ventral and orbital prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci (the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience) 25(50):11628–11636

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sagvolden T, Johansen EB, Aase H, Russell VA (2005) A dynamic developmental theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) predominantly hyperactive/impulsive and combined subtypes. Behav Brain Sci 28(3):397–419 (discussion 419–368)

    Google Scholar 

  • Sakai K, Passingham RE (2003) Prefrontal interactions reflect future task operations. Nat Neurosci 6(1):75–81

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sakai K, Passingham RE (2006) Prefrontal set activity predicts rule-specific neural processing during subsequent cognitive performance. J Neurosci (the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience) 26(4):1211–1218

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sakai K, Rowe JB, Passingham RE (2002) Active maintenance in prefrontal area 46 creates distractor-resistant memory. Nat Neurosci 5(5):479–484

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheres A, Milham MP, Knutson B, Castellanos FX (2007) Ventral striatal hyporesponsiveness during reward anticipation in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 61(5):720–724. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.04.042

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmithorst VJ, Wilke M, Dardzinski BJ, Holland SK (2005) Cognitive functions correlate with white matter architecture in a normal pediatric population: a diffusion tensor MRI study. Hum Brain Mapp 26(2):139–147. doi:10.1002/hbm.20149

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz W (1997) Dopamine neurons and their role in reward mechanisms. Curr Opin Neurobiol 7(2):191–197

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz W, Apicella P, Ljungberg T, Romo R, Scarnati E (1993) Reward-related activity in the monkey striatum and substantia nigra. Prog Brain Res 99:227–235

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seeley WW, Menon V, Schatzberg AF, Keller J, Glover GH, Kenna H, Reiss AL, Greicius MD (2007) Dissociable intrinsic connectivity networks for salience processing and executive control. J Neurosci (the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience) 27(9):2349–2356

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seidman LJ, Biederman J, Faraone SV, Milberger S, Norman D, Seiverd K, Benedict K, Guite J, Mick E, Kiely K (1995) Effects of family history and comorbidity on the neuropsychological performance of children with ADHD: preliminary findings. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34(8):1015–1024. doi:10.1097/00004583-199508000-00011

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seidman LJ, Biederman J., Faraone SV, Weber W, Ouellette C (1997) Toward defining a neuropsychology of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: performance of children and adolescents from a large clinically referred sample. J Consult Clin Psychol 65(1):150–160

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw P, Eckstrand K, Sharp W, Blumenthal J, Lerch JP, Greenstein D, Clasen L, Evans A, Giedd J, Rapoport JL (2007) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is characterized by a delay in cortical maturation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104(49):19649–19654

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw P, Lerch J, Greenstein D, Sharp W, Clasen L, Evans A, Giedd J, Castellanos FX, Rapoport J (2006) Longitudinal mapping of cortical thickness and clinical outcome in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63(5):540–549. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.5.540

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheridan MA, Hinshaw S, D’Esposito M (2007) Efficiency of the prefrontal cortex during working memory in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 46(10):1357–1366

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman DK, Iacono WG, McGue MK (1997) Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder dimensions: a twin study of inattention and impulsivity-hyperactivity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 36(6):745–753

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smalley SL, Kustanovich V, Minassian SL, Stone JL, Ogdie MN, McGough JJ, McCracken JT, MacPhie IL, Francks C, Fisher SE, Cantor RM, Monaco AP, Nelson SF (2002) Genetic linkage of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder on chromosome 16p13, in a region implicated in autism. Am J Hum Genet 71(4):959–963. doi:10.1086/342732

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke EJ (2002) Psychological heterogeneity in AD/HD–a dual pathway model of behaviour and cognition. Behav Brain Res 130(1–2):29–36. doi:S0166432801004326 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke EJ (2005) Causal models of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: from common simple deficits to multiple developmental pathways. Biol Psychiatry 57(11):1231–1238. doi:S0006-3223(04)00948-5 [pii] 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.09.008

    Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke EJ, Sergeant JA, Nigg J, Willcutt E (2008) Executive dysfunction and delay aversion in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: nosologic and diagnostic implications. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin North Am 17(2):367–384, ix. doi:S1056-4993(07)00122-8 [pii] 10.1016/j.chc.2007.11.008

  • Sowell ER, Peterson BS, Thompson PM, Welcome SE, Henkenius AL, Toga AW (2003) Mapping cortical change across the human life span. Nat Neurosci 6(3):309–315

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sowell ER, Thompson PM, Leonard CM, Welcome SE, Kan E, Toga AW (2004) Longitudinal mapping of cortical thickness and brain growth in normal children. J Neurosci (the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience) 24(38):8223–8231

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sowell ER, Thompson PM, Tessner KD, Toga AW (2001) Mapping continued brain growth and gray matter density reduction in dorsal frontal cortex: inverse relationships during postadolescent brain maturation. J Neurosci (the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience) 21(22):8819–8829

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sprich S, Biederman J, Crawford MH, Mundy E, Faraone SV (2000) Adoptive and biological families of children and adolescents with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 39(11):1432–1437. doi:10.1097/00004583-200011000-00018

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strauss AA, Lehtinen LE (1947) Psychopathology and education of the brain-injured child. Grune and Stratton, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Strohle A, Stoy M, Wrase J, Schwarzer S, Schlagenhauf F, Huss M, Hein J, Nedderhut A, Neumann B, Gregor A, Juckel G, Knutson B, Lehmkuhl U, Bauer M, Heinz A (2008) Reward anticipation and outcomes in adult males with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. NeuroImage 39(3):966–972. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.09.044

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stryker S (1925) Encephalitis lethargica—the behavior residuals. Training Sch Bull 22:152–157

    Google Scholar 

  • Stuss DT (1992) Biological and psychological development of executive functions. Brain Cogn 20(1):8–23

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Supekar K, Musen M, Menon V (2009) Development of large-scale functional brain networks in children. PLoS Biol 7(7):e1000157. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000157

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor E (2010) Children with ADHD at increased risk of adolescent ADHD, ODD, anxiety or depression and functional impairment. Evid based Ment Health 13(4):110. doi:10.1136/ebmh.13.4.110

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor E (2011) Antecedents of ADHD: a historical account of diagnostic concepts. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disord 3(2):69–75. doi:10.1007/s12402-010-0051-x

    Google Scholar 

  • Thapar A, Holmes J, Poulton K, Harrington R (1999) Genetic basis of attention deficit and hyperactivity. Br J Psychiatry (the journal of mental science) 174:105–111

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tian L, Jiang T, Wang Y, Zang Y, He Y, Liang M, Sui M, Cao Q, Hu S, Peng M, Zhuo Y (2006) Altered resting-state functional connectivity patterns of anterior cingulate cortex in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurosci Lett 400(1–2):39–43

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Toga AW, Thompson PM, Sowell ER (2006) Mapping brain maturation. Trends Neurosci 29(3):148–159

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tononi G, Edelman GM (2000) Schizophrenia and the mechanisms of conscious integration. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 31(2–3):391–400

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tripp G, Alsop B (1999) Sensitivity to reward frequency in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Child Psychol 28(3):366–375. doi:10.1207/S15374424jccp280309

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turkeltaub PE, Gareau L, Flowers DL, Zeffiro TA, Eden GF (2003) Development of neural mechanisms for reading. Nat Neurosci 6:767–773

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uddin LQ, Kelly AM, Biswal BB, Margulies DS, Shehzad Z, Shaw D, Ghaffari M, Rotrosen J, Adler LA, Castellanos FX, Milham MP (2008) Network homogeneity reveals decreased integrity of default-mode network in ADHD. J Neurosci Methods 169(1):249–254

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Ewijk H, Heslenfeld DJ, Zwiers MP, Buitelaar JK, Oosterlaan J (2012) Diffusion tensor imaging in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 36(4):1093–1106. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.01.003

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wager TD, Smith EE (2003) Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci 3(4):255–274

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wakefield JC (1997) When is development disordered? Developmental psychopathology and the harmful dysfunction analysis of mental disorder. Dev Psychopathol 9(2):269–290

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Welsh MC, Pennington BF (1988) Assessing frontal lobe functioning in children: views from developmental psychology. Dev Neuropsychol 4:199–230

    Google Scholar 

  • Welsh MC, Pennington BF, Groisser DB (1991) A normative-developmental study of executive function: a window on prefrontal function in children. Dev Neuropsychol 7:131–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Whalley HC, Simonotto E, Marshall I, Owens DG, Goddard NH, Johnstone EC, Lawrie SM (2005) Functional disconnectivity in subjects at high genetic risk of schizophrenia. Brain (a journal of neurology) 128(Pt 9):2097–2108

    Google Scholar 

  • Willcutt EG, Nigg JT, Pennington BF, Solanto MV, Rohde LA, Tannock R, Loo SK, Carlson CL, McBurnett K, Lahey BB (2012) Validity of DSM-IV attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptom dimensions and subtypes. J Abnorm Psychol 121(4):991–1010. doi:10.1037/a0027347

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Williams NM, Franke B, Mick E, Anney RJ, Freitag CM, Gill M, Thapar A, O’Donovan MC, Owen MJ, Holmans P, Kent L, Middleton F, Zhang-James Y, Liu L, Meyer J, Nguyen TT, Romanos J, Romanos M, Seitz C, Renner TJ, Walitza S, Warnke A, Palmason H, Buitelaar J, Rommelse N, Vasquez AA, Hawi Z, Langley K, Sergeant J, Steinhausen HC, Roeyers H, Biederman J, Zaharieva I, Hakonarson H, Elia J, Lionel AC, Crosbie J, Marshall CR, Schachar R, Scherer SW, Todorov A, Smalley SL, Loo S, Nelson S, Shtir C, Asherson P, Reif A, Lesch KP, Faraone SV (2012) Genome-wide analysis of copy number variants in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: the role of rare variants and duplications at 15q13.3. Am J Psychiatry 169(2):195–204

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wise RA (1980) Action of drugs of abuse on brain reward systems. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 13(Suppl 1):213–223

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yakovlev PI, Lecours AR (1967) The myelogenetic cycles of regional maturation of the brain. In: Minkowski A (ed) Regional development of the brain in early life. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, pp 3–70

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health and Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, L470, Portland, OR, 97239, USA

    Marguerite Matthews, Joel T. Nigg & Damien A. Fair

  2. Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA

    Joel T. Nigg & Damien A. Fair

  3. Department of Pediatrics, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA

    Joel T. Nigg

  4. Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA

    Damien A. Fair

Authors
  1. Marguerite Matthews
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Joel T. Nigg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Damien A. Fair
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Damien A. Fair .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. McLean Hospital Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA

    Susan L. Andersen

  2. NIMH, Bethesda, USA

    Daniel S. Pine

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Matthews, M., Nigg, J.T., Fair, D.A. (2013). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. In: Andersen, S., Pine, D. (eds) The Neurobiology of Childhood. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, vol 16. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2013_249

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation