Abstract
We still do not understand what it is that makes living matter alive. If we did we could build living machines, but it is clear that we do not have the technology to do that today. Living machines would be able to self-reproduce, find their own sources of energy, and repair themselves to some degree. They need not necessarily be built from our standard materials, silicon and metal. Living machines will change all of our technologies with equivalent disruption as that introduced by electricity and that by plastics. Living machines will invade the fabric of our everyday lives.
There are three thrusts to trying to build living machines. First is to build robots with partial characteristics of living machines, looking for the key intellectual ideas that make them possible. The second is to use generalized evolutionary systems to investigate possible mechanisms and designs. Generalized evolutionary systems use analogs of physical processes to organize the world for evolving systems, living in that world. The third thrust is to develop a new mathematics of living systems. This new mathematics interacts with the first two thrusts in two ways. It is inspired by the first two thrusts to formalize the notions developed there. Additionally it is used to provide constraints on the design spaces in the first two thrusts, to guide the research work to the appropriate areas.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Edwin A. Abbott. Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY, 1884. 6th Edition, Revised with Introduction by Banesh Hoffmann, 1952.
Michael A. Arbib. Simple self-reproducing universal automata. Information and Control, 9:177–189, 1966.
Michael A. Arbib, editor. The Handbook of Brain Theory and Neural Networks. The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1995.
Steven A. Benner, Petra Burgstaller, Thomas R. Battersby, and Simona Jurczyk. Did the RNA world exploit an expanded genetic alphabet? In Raymond F. Gesteland, Thomas R. Cech, and John F. Atkins, editors, The RNA World, pages 163–181. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, second edition, 1999.
Cynthia L. Breazeal. Building Sociable Robots. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2001.
Rodney A. Brooks. A robot that walks: Emergent behavior from a carefully evolved network. Neural Computation, 1(2):253–262, 1989.
Rodney A. Brooks. New approaches to robotics. Science, 253:1227–1232, 1991.
Rodney A. Brooks. The relationship between matter and life. Nature, 409:409–411, 18 January 2001.
E. F. Codd. Cellular automata. ACM Monograph Series. Academic Press, New York, 1968.
Jonathan H. Connell. Minimalist Mobil Robotics: A Colony-style Architecture for an Artificial Creature, volume 5 of Perspectives in Artificial Intelligence. Academic Press, Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, 1990.
Lynnae Davies, Larry Keenan, and Harold Koopowitz. Nerve repair and behavioral recovery following brain transplantation in notoplana acti cola, a polyclad flatworm. The Journal of Experimental Zoology, 235:157–173, 1985.
Stephen J. Freeland and Laurence D. Hurst. The genetic code is one in a million. Journal of Molecular Evolution, 47:238–248, 1998.
Raymond F. Gesteland, Thomas R. Cech, and John F. Atkins, editors. The RNA World: The Nature of Modern RNA Suggests a Prebiotic RNA. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, second edition edition, 1999.
Adrian Horridge. The nervous system of the ephyra larva of aurellia aurita. Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, 97:59–74, March 1956.
G. A. Horridge. The origins of the nervous system. In Geoffrey H. Bourne, editor, The Structure and Function of Nervous Tissue, volume 1, pages 1–31. Academic Press, New York, 1968.
Gerald F. Joyce and Leslie E. Orgel. Prospects for understanding the origin of the RNA world. In Raymond F. Gesteland, Thomas R. Cech, and John F. Atkins, editors, The RNA World, pages 49–77. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, second edition, 1999.
C. Larry Keenan, Richard Coss, and Harold Koopowitz. Cytoarchitecture of primitive brains: Golgi studies in flatworms. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 195:697–716, 1981.
Harold Koopowitz. Feeding behaviour and the role of the brain in the polyclad flatworm, planocera gilchrist. Animal Behaviour, 18:31–35, 1970.
Harold Koopowitz. Polyclad neurobiology and the evolution of central nervous systems. In Peter A.V. Anderson, editor, Evolution of the First Nervous systems, pages 315–327. Plenum Press, New York, 1989.
Harold Koopowitz, Mark Elvin, and Larry Keenan In vivo visualization of living flatworm neurons using lucifer yellow intracellular injections. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 69:83–89, October 1996.
Harold Koopowitz and Larry Keenan. The primitive brains of platyhelminthes. Trends in Neurosciences, 5(3):77–79, 1982.
H. D. Landahl, Warren S. McCulloch, and Walter Pitts. A statistical consequence of the logical calculus of nervous nets. Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 5:135–137, 1943.
Chris G. Langton. Emergent computation. In Stephanie Forrest, editor, Computation at the Edge of Chaos, pages 12–37. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1991.
Hod Lipson and Jordan B. Pollack. Automatic design and manufacture of robotics lifeforms. Nature, 406:974–978, 2000.
G. O. Mackie. The elementary nervous system revisited. American Zoologist, 30:907–920, 1990.
Warren S. McCulloch and Walter Pitts. A logical calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity. Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 5:115–133, 1943.
Barry McMullin. John von Neumann and the evolutionary growth of complexity: Looking backward, looking forward... Artificial Life, 6:347–361, 2000.
Stefano Nolfi and Dario Floreano. Learning and evolution. Autonomous Robots, 7:89–113, 1999.
Steven R. Quartz and Terrence J. Sejnowski. The neural basis of cognitive development: A constructivist manifesto. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 20:537–596, 1997.
Thomas S. Ray. An approach to the synthesis of life. In J. Doyne Farmer Christopher G. Langton, Charles Taylor and Steen Rasmussen, editors, Proceedings of Artificial Life, II, pages 371–408. Addison-Wesley, 1990. Appeared 1991.
Robert Rosen. Life Itself: A Comprehensive Inquiry Into the Nature, Origin, and Fabrication of Life. Columbia University Press, New York, 1991.
Karl Sims. Evolving 3d morphology and behavior by competition. In Rodney A. Brooks and Pattie Maes, editors, Artificial Life IV: Proceedings of the Fourth International Workshop on the Synthesis and Simulation of Living Systems, pages 28–39. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1994.
Andrew N. Spencer, Jan Pryzsiezniak, Juan Acosta-Urquidi, and Trent A. Basarsky. Presynaptic spike broadening reduces junctional potential amplitude. Nature, 340:636–638, 24 August 1989.
Hiroaki Takagi, Kunihiko Kaneko, and Tetsuya Yomo. Evolution of genetic codes through isologous diversification of cellular states. Artificial Life, 6:283–305, 2000.
John von Neumann. The general and logical theory of automata. In L.A. Jeffress, editor, Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior-The Hixon Symposium, pages 1–31. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1951.
John von Neumann. Probabilistic logics and the synthesis of reliable organisms from unreliable components. In Claude Elwood Shannon and John McCarthy, editors, Automata Studies, pages 43–98. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1956.
Christopher Wills and Jeffrey Bada. The Spark Of Life. Perseus Publishing, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2000.
William B. Wood and the Community of C. elegans Researchers, editors. The Nematode Caenorhabditis Elegans. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, 1988.
Todd S. Woodward, Mike J. Dixon, Kathy T. Mullen, Karin M. Christensen, and Daniel N. Bub. Analysis of errors in color agnosia: A single-case study. Neurocase, 5:95–108, 1999.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2001 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this paper
Cite this paper
Brooks, R.A. (2001). Steps Towards Living Machines. In: Gomi, T. (eds) Evolutionary Robotics. From Intelligent Robotics to Artificial Life. EvoRobots 2001. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 2217. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-45502-7_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-45502-7_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-42737-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-45502-8
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive