Abstract
First ideas about possible physical influences of the Sun on Earth other than by electromagnetic (EM) radiation were scientifically discussed more seriously after Richard Carrington’s famous observation of a spectacular white-light flare in 1859 and the subsequent conclusion that this flash of EM radiation was connected with the origin of strong perturbations of the Earth’s outer magnetic field, commonly referred to as geomagnetic storms, which were recorded about 24 hours after the solar flare. Tentatively significant correlations of the number of geomagnetic storms and aurorae with the varying number of sunspots seen on the visible solar disk were found in the long-term with respect to the roughly 11-year periodicity of the solar activity cycle. Although theories of sporadic solar eruptions were postulated soon after the Carrington observations, the physical mechanism of the transfer of energy from the Sun to the Earth remained unknown. Early in the 20th century Chapman and Ferraro proposed the concept of huge clouds of charged particles emitted by the Sun as the triggers of geomagnetic storms. Based on the inference of the existence of a solar magnetic field, magnetized plasma clouds were subsequently introduced. Eugene Parker derived theoretical evidence for a continuous stream of ionized particles, the solar wind, leading to continuous convection of the Sun’s magnetic field into interplanetary space. The existence of the solar wind was confirmed soon after the launch of the first satellites. Since then the Sun is known to be a permanent source of particles filling interplanetary space. However, it was still thought that the Sun’s outer atmosphere, the solar corona, is a static rather than a dynamic object, undergoing only long-term structural changes in phase with the Sun’s activity cycle. This view completely changed after space borne telescopes provided extended series of solar images in the EUV and soft X-ray range of the EM spectrum, invisible to ground-based observers. The remote-sensing observations undertaken by Yohkoh, followed by multi-wavelength movies from SoHO (Solar Heliospheric Observatory) and high resolution EUV imaging by TRACE (Transition Region and Coronal Explorer) have revealed to date that the Sun’s atmosphere is highly dynamic and never at rest. Solar eruptions have been tracked into space in unprecedented detail. In combination with near-Earth satellites, their interplanetary and geo-space effects could be investigated in depth, having provided the roots for space weather forecasts. This chapter summarizes the discoveries about the origin and evolution of solar storms and their space weather effects, providing a comprehensive picture of the most important links in the Sun-Earth system. It finally provides an outlook to future research in the field of space weather.
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Bothmer, V. (2006). The Solar Atmosphere and Space Weather. In: Blondel, P., Mason, J.W. (eds) Solar System Update. Springer Praxis Books. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-37683-6_1
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