Summary
This volume is appropriately titled “The Emerging Physics of Consciousness” and much of it is focused on using some aspect of “quantum weirdness” to solve the problems associated with the phenomenon of consciousness. This is sometimes done in the hope that perhaps the two mysteries will somehow cancel each other through such phenomena as quantum coherence and entanglement or superposition of wave functions.
We are not convinced that such a cancellation can take place. In fact, finding that quantum phenomena are involved in consciousness, what we will call the “quantum consciousness idea” (QCI) (fathered largely by Penrose and Hameroff CHEXX[40, 102, 103]), is likely to confound both mysteries and is of great interest.
In our contribution, we want to emphasize the “merging” part of this volume’s title by pointing out that there is a glaring need for properly controlled and reproducible experimental work if any proposed quantum phenomena in biological matter, let alone consciousness are to be taken seriously.
There are three broad kinds of experiments that one can devise to test hypotheses involving the relevance of quantum effects to the phenomenon of consciousness. The three kinds address three different scale ranges associated roughly with tissueto-cell (1 cm–10 µm), cell-to-protein (10 µm–10 nm) and protein-to-atom (10 nm–1 Å) sizes. Note that we are excluding experiments that aim to detect quantum effects at the “whole human” or even “society” level as these have consistently given either negative results or been plagued by irreproducibility and lack of appropriate controls (e. g. the various extra sensory perception and remote viewing experiments CHEXX[72]).
The consciousness experiments belonging to the tissue-cell scale frequently utilize apparatus such as electroencephalographs (EEG) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to track responses of brains to stimuli. The best example of such is the excellent work undertaken by Christoff Koch’s group at Caltech CHEXX[61] sometimes in collaboration with the late Francis Crick CHEXX[22], tracking the activity of living, conscious human brain neurons involved in visual recognition. These experiments are designed to elucidate the multi- and single-cellular substrate of visual consciousness and awareness and are likely to lead to profound insights into the working human brain. Because of the large spatial and long temporal resolution of these methods, it is unclear whether they can reveal possible underlying quantum behavior (barring some unlikely inconsistency with classical physics such as, for instance, nonlocality of neural firing).
The second size scale that is explored for evidence of quantum behavior related to aspects of consciousness (memory in particular) is that between a cell and a protein. Inspired by QCI, seminal experimental work has been done by Nancy Woolf CHEXX[142, 143] on dendritic expression of MAP-2 in rats and has been followed by significant experiments performed by members of our group on the effects of MAPTAU overexpression on the learning and memory of transgenic Drosophila (summarized in Sect. 4.3). Such attempts are very important to the understanding of the intracellular processes that undoubtedly play a significant role in the emergence of consciousness but it is hard to see how experiments involving tracking the memory phenotypes and intracellular redistribution of proteins can show a direct quantum connection. It seems clear that experimentation at this size scale can at best provide evidence that is “not inconsistent with” and perhaps “suggestive of” the QCI CHEXX[86].
The third scale regime is that of protein-to-atom sizes. It is well understood that at the low end of this scale, quantum effects play a significant role and it is slowly being recognized that even at the level of whole-protein function, quantummechanical (QM) effects may be of paramount importance to biological processes such as, for instance, enzymatic action CHEXX[4] or photosynthesis CHEXX[112].
In what follows, we give a brief overview of our theoretical QED model of microtubules and the extensive experimental work undertaken (belonging to the second and third size scales). We conclude by pointing towards directions of further investigation that can provide direct evidence of quantum effects in the function of biological matter and perhaps consciousness.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Agarwal, G.S. (1984). Phys. Rev. Lett. 53:1732–1742.
Altewischer, E.T. (2002). Nature 418:304–306.
Armstrong, J.D., deBelle, J.S., Wang, Z. & Kaiser, K. (1998). Learning & Memory 5:102–114.
Ball, P. (2004). Nature 431:397.
Bancher, C., Brunner, C., Lassmann, H., Budka, H., Jellinger, K., Wiche, G., Seitelberger, F., Grundke-Iqbal, I. & Wisniewski, H.M. (1989). Brain Res. 477:90–99.
Bardeen, J. (1979). Phys. Rev. Lett. 42:1498–1500.
Bardeen, J. (1980). Phys. Rev. Lett. 45:1978–1980.
Bardeen, J. (1990). Physics Today December:25–31.
Bayley, P.P., Sharma, K.K. & Martin, S.R. (1994). In Microtubules, Hyams, J.S., Lloyd, C.W., (eds.) Wiley-Liss, New York: 111–137.
Beck, C.D.O., Scrhoeder, B. & Davis, R.L. (2000). J. Neuroscience 20:2944–2953.
Bednorz, J.G.M. (1988). Rev. Mod. Phys 60:585–600.
Bernadot, F. (1992). Electrophysics Letters 17:34–44.
BIAcore, I.B.A.
Brekhovskikh, L.M. (1980). Waves in Layered Media. New York: Academic Press.
Brion, N.J., Tremp, G. & Octave, N.J. (1999). Am, J Pathol 154:255–270.
Brown, J.A. (1999). University of Alberta, Canada: Edmonton.
Buchanan, R.L.B., S. (1993). Neuron 10:839–850.
Chaudhur, A.R., Tomita, I., Mizuhashi, F., Murata, K. Potenziano, J.L. & Luduena, R.F. (1998). Biochemistry 37(49):17157–17162.
Cheng, Y., Endo, K., Wu, K., Rodan, A.R., Heberlein, U., and Davis, R.L. (2001). Cell 105:757–768.
Coleman, S. (1976). Ann. Phys. 101:239–267.
Collier, C.P., wong, E.W., Belohradsky, M., Raymo, F.M., Stoddart, J.F., Kuekes, P.J., Williams, R.S. & Heath, J.R. (1999). Science 285:391–394.
Crick, F.C., Koch, C., Kreiman, G., and Fried, I (2004). Neurosurgery 55:273–282.
Crittenden, J.R., Skoulakis, E.M.C., Han, K-A., Kalderon, D., and Davis, R.L. (1998). Learning & Memory 5:38–51.
deBelle, S.J.H., M. (1994). Science 263:692–695.
del Guidice, E., Doglia, S., Milani, M., and Vitiello, G. (1986). Nucl. Phys. B 275:185–195.
del Guidice, E., Preparata, G., and Vitiello, G. (1988). Phys. Rev. Lett. 61:1085.
Derycke, V.M., R., Appenzeller, J., and Avouris, Ph. (2001). Nano Lett 1(9):453–456.
Dias, O.J.C.L., J.P.S. (2001). J. Math. Phys 42:3292–3299.
Diaz, J.F., Pantos, E., Bordas, J., and Andreu, M.J. (1994). J. Mol. Biol. 238:213–225.
Dubnau, J., Grady, L., Kitamoto, T., and Tully, T. (2001). Nature 411:476–480.
Dustin, P. (1992). Microtubules. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Earp, R.L.D., R.E. (1998). Surface Plasmon Resonance in Commercial Biosensors: Applications to Clinical Bioprocesses and Environmental Samples, (ed.) G. Ramsay. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Flyvberg, H., Holy, T.E., and Leibler, S. (1994). Phys. Rev. Lett. 73(17):2372–2375.
Fröhlich, H. (1986). Bioelectrochemistry, (ed.) F.K. Guttman, New York: Plenum Press.
Garcia, M.L.C. (2001). Current Opinion in Cell Biology 13:41–48.
Gilson, M.K.H. (1986). Biopolymers 25:2097–2119.
Gisin, N.P. (1993). J. Phys, A. 26:2233–2239.
Grutner, G. (1994). Density Waves in Solids. Vol. Advanced Book Program. 1994, Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Publication Co.
Hameroff, S.R. (1974). Am. J. Clin. Med. 2:163–173.
Hameroff, S.R. (1998). Toxicology Letters 100–101:31–39.
Harcoche, S.R. (1994). Cavity Quantum Electrodynamics, (ed.) P. Berman. New York: Academic Press.
Hedestrand, G. (1929). J. Phys. Chem. B2:428–438.
Heidary, G.F., M. (2001). Mech. Development 108:171–178.
Himmler, A. (1989). Mol. Cell. Biol. 9:1389–1396.
Himmler, A., Drechsel, D., Kirschner, M.W., and Martin, J.D.W. (1989). Mol. Cell. Biol. 9:1381–1388.
Hirokawa, N., Shiomura, Y., and Okabe. S. (1988). J. Cell Biol. 107:1449–1459.
Hutton, M., Lewis, J., dickson, D., Yen, S-H., and McGowan, E. (2001). Trends in Mol. Medicine 7:467–470.
Hyman, A.A., Chretien, D., Arnal, I., and Wade, R.H. (1995). J. Cell Biol. 128(1/2):117–125.
Jackson, J.D. (1999). Classical Electrodynamics. 3rd edn. 1999, New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Jackson, G.R., Wiedau-Pazos, M., Wagle, N., Brown, C.A., Massachi, S., and Geschwind, D.H. (2002). Neuron 43:409–519.
Jacobs, M. (1979). In Microtubules, K.H. Roberts, J.S., (ed.). 1979, Academic Press: London.
Jelinek, F., Pokorny, J., Saroch, J., Trkal, V., Hasek, J., and Palan, B. (1999). Bioelectrochemistry and Bioenergetics 48:261–266.
Jibu, M., Hagan, S., Hameroff, S.R., Pribram, K., and Yasue, K. (1994). Biosystems 32:195–214.
Jobs, E., Wolf, D.E., and Fylvbjerg, H. (1997). Phys. Rev. Lett. 29(3):519–522.
Jones, T.C., Wu, X., Simpson, C.R. Jr., Clayhold, J.A., and McCarten, J.P. (2000). Phys. Rev. B 61:10066–10075.
Jorgenson, R.C., Jung, C., Yee, S.S., and Burgess, L.W. (1993). Sensors and Actuators B13–14:721–722.
Julsgaard, B., Kozhekin, A., and Polzik, E. (2001). Nature 413:400–412.
Kielpinski, D., Meyer, V., Rowe, M.A., Sackett, C.A., Itano, W.M., Monroe, C., and Wineland, W.M. (2001). Science 291:1013–1033.
Kirkwood, J.G. (1939). J. Chem. Phys. 7:911–919.
Kirkwood, J.G. (1939). J. Phys. Chem. 7:919–924.
Koch, C. (2004). Current Biology 14:497–97.
Koruga, D.L. (1985). Ann. NY Acad. Sci 466:953–957.
Kozhuma, T., Dennison, C., McFarlane, W., Nakashima, S., Kitagawa, T., Inoue, T., Kai, Y., Nishio, N., Shidara, S., Suzuki, S. & Sykes, A.G. (1999). J. Biol. Chem 270:25733–25738.
Kretschmann, E., Z. (1971). Physik 241:313–324.
Krive, I.V.R., A.S. (1985). Solid State Commun. 55:691–694.
Kwiat, p., Matle, P., Weirfurter, P., and Zeilinger, K. (1996). Phys. Rev. Lett. 75:4337–4343.
Lal, P. (1985). Phys. Lett. 111(A):389–400.
Latyshev, y.I., Laborde, O., Monceau, P., and Kaumunzer, S. (1997). Phys. Rev. Lett. 78:919–922.
Laughlin, R.B.P. (2000). Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci, USA 97:28–31.
Lee, V., Goedert, M., and Trojanowski, J.Q. (2001). Ann. Rev. Neuroscience 24:1121–1159.
Lewis, J., McGowan, E., Rockwood, J., Melrose, H., Nacharaju, P., Van Slegtenhorst, M., Gwinn-Hardy, K., Paul-Murphy, M., Baker, M., Yu, X., Duff, K., Hardy, J., Corral, A., Lin, W.L., Yen, S.H., Dickson, D.W., Davies, P., and Hutton, M. (2000). Nat. Genet. 1:127–158.
Lilienfeld, S., O. (1999). Skeptical Inquirer Magazine Online, Nov/Dec.
Liliom, K., Wagner, G., Pacz, A., Vascante, M., Kovacs, J., and Ovadi, J. (2000). Eur. J. Biochem. 267:4731–4739.
Lioubimov, V., Kolomenski, A.A., Mershin, A., Nanopoulos, D.V., and Schuessler, H.A. (2004). Applied Optics 43(17).
Lofas, S., Johnsson, B., Edstrom, Al. Hansson, A., Lindquist, G., Muller, H., and Stigh, L. (1995). Biosensors and Bioelectronics 10:813–822.
Luduena, R.F. (1998). Int. Rev. Cytol. 178:207–275.
Maki, K. (1977). Phys. Rev. Lett. 39:46–48.
Matsubara, K., Kawata, S., and Minami, S. (1988). Applied Optics 27:1160–1163.
Mavromatos, N.E., Nanopoulos, D.V., and Zioutas, K. (1998). Advances in Structural Biology 5:127–137.
Mavromatos, N.E.N. and Nanopoulos, D.V. (1998). Int. J. of Mod. Physics B B12:517–527.
Mavromatos, N.E., Mershin, A., and Nanopoulos, D.V. (2002). Int. J. of Mod. Physics B 16(24):3623–3642.
Mavromatos, N.E. (1999). Bioelectrochemistry and Bioenergetics 48:100–123.
McGuire, S.E., Le, P.T., and Davis, R.L. (2001). Science 293:1330–1333.
Melendez, J., Carr, R., Bartholomew, D.U., Kukanskis, K., Elkind, J., Yeee, S., Furlong, C., and Woodbury, R. (1996). Sensors and Actuators B35:1–5.
Melki, R., Carlier, M.F., and Pantaloni, D., and Timasheff, S.N. (1989). Biochemistry 28:9143–9152.
Mershin, A., Pavlopoulos, E., Fitch, O., Braden, B.C., Nanopoulos, D.V., and Skoulakis, E.M.C.S. (2004). Learning & Memory 11(2):277–287.
Mershin, A., Kolomenskii, A.A., Schuessler, H.A., Nanopoulos, D.V. (2004). Biosystems 77:73–85.
Mershin, A., Nanopoulos, D.V., and Skoulakis, E.M.C.S. (1999). Proceedings of the Academy of Athens 74:123–173.
Miller, J.H.J., Ordonez, C., and Prodan, E. (2000). Phys. Rev. Lett. 84:1555–1558.
Miller, J.H.J., Richard, J., Tucker, J.R., and Brandeen, J. (1983). Phys. Rev. Lett. 51:1592–1595.
Miller, J.H.J., Thorne, R.E., Lyons, W.G., Tucker, J.R. (1985). Phys. Rev. B. 31:5229–5243.
Miller, J.H.J., Cardenas, G., Garcia-Perez, A., More, W., and Beckwith, A.W. (2003). J. Phys A:Math Gen. 36:9209–9221.
Mitchison, J.K., M.W. (1984). Nature 312:237–242.
Mitchison, J. (1997). Annu. Rev. Cell. Dev. Biol 13:83–117, 99–100.
Mori, H. (1989). Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 159(3):1221–1226.
Nanopoulos, D.V. (1995). October 4–8, 1994, invited talk at the “Physics Without Frontiers Four Seas Conference”, Trieste, Italy, June 25–July 1, 1995. also in, XV Brazilian National Meeting on Particles and Fields. 1995. Angra dos Reis, Brazil. http://xxx.lanl.gov/abs/hep-ph/9505374.
Nogales, E., Whittaker, M., Milligan, R.A., and Downing, K.H. (1999). Cell 96:79–88.
Nogales, E., Wolf, S.G., and Downing, K.H. (1998). Nature 291:199–203.
Novak, M. (1999). PNAS (USA) 88:5837–5841.
Oberparleiter, B.W., P. (2001). Phys. Rev. A 64:23–28.
Otwinowski, M., Paul, R., and Laidlaw, W.G. (1988). Phys. Lett. A. 128:483.
Penrose, R. (1989). The Emperor’s New Mind. 1st edn., Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Penrose, R. (1994). Shadows of the Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Pereira, A.k., A. & Peng, A. (1992). Phys. Rev. Lett. 68:3663–3666.
Peterlinz, K.A. (1996). Optics Communications 130:260.
Philip, N., Acevedo, S., and Skoulakis, E.M.C. (2001). J. Neuroscience 21:8417–8425.
Pokorny, J., Jelinek, F, and Trkal, V. (1998). Bioelectrochemistry and Bioenergetics 45:239–245.
Pokorny, J. (1999). Bioelectrochemistry and Bioenergetics 48:267–271.
Quillin, M.L.M. (2000). Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 56(7):791–794.
Raether, H. (1988). Springer Tracts in Modern Physics 111. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Rauschenbeutel, E. (2000). Science 288:2024–2028.
Ritz, T., Damjanovic, A., and Schulten, K. (2002). Chem. Phys. Chem. 3:243–248.
Ross, J.H., Jr., Wang, Z., and Slichter, C.P. (1986). Phys. Rev. Lett. 56:663–666.
Ross, J.H., Jr., Wang, Z., and Slichter, C.P. (1990). Phys. Rev. B. 41:2722–2734.
Sackett, D.L. (1995). In Subcellular Biochemistry, B.B.R. Biswas, S., (ed.). Plenum Press: New York.
Sackett, L. (2000). Nature 404:256–259.
Samal, S.G., K.E. (2001). Chemical Communications:2224–2225.
Sanchez-Mondragon, J.J., Narozhny, N.B., and Eberly, J.H. (1983). Phys. Rev. Lett. 51:550–560.
Sataric, M.V., Tuszynski, J.A., and Zakula, R.B. (1993). Physical Review E 48(1):589–597.
Sataric, M.V., Zekovic, S., Tuszynski, J.A., and Pokorny, J. (1998). Phys. Rev. E 58:6333–6340.
Schlag, E.W., Sheu, S-Y., Yang, D-Y., Sezle, H.L., and Lin, S.H. (2000). PNAS (USA) 97:1068–1072.
Schuessler, H.A., Mershin, A., Kolomenskii, A.A., and Nanopoulos, D.V. (2003). J. Modern Optics 50(15–17):2381–2391.
Scully, M.O.Z., S. (2001). PNAS (USA) 98(17):9490–9493.
Skoulakis, E.M.C.K., D., and Davis, R.L. (1993). Neuron 11:197–208.
Skoulakis, E.M.C.D., R.L. (1996). Neuron 17:931–944.
Song, K.-H.Z., W-J. (2001). Physics Letters A 290:214–218.
Stebbins, H.H., C. (1982). Cell. Tissue Res. 227:609–617.
Stenberg, E., Persson, B., Roos, H., and Urbaniczky, C. (1991). Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 143:513–526.
Tegmark, M., (2000). Phys. Rev. E 61:4194–42000.
Thorne, R.E., Miller, J.H. Jr., Lyons, W.G., Lyding, J.W., and Tucker, J.R. (1985). Phys. Rev. Lett. 55:1006–1009.
Togerson, T., Branning, S., Monken, M., and Mandel, A. (1995). Phys. Lett. A. 204:323–328.
Tong, C., Kolomenskii, A.A., Lioubimov, V.A., Muthuchamy, M., Schuessler, H.A., Trache, A., and Granger, H. (2001). Biochemistry 40:13915–13924.
Tsue, Y.F., Y. (1991). Prog. Theor. Phys. 86:469.
Tully, T.Q., W. (1985). J. Comp. Physiol. 157:263–277.
Van Buren, V., Odde, D.J., and Cassimeris, L. (2002). PNAS (USA) 99: 6035–6040.
Van Gent, J., Lambeck, P.V., Kreuvel, J.J.M, Gerritsma, G.J., Sudhoelter, E.J.R., Reunhoudt, D.N., and Popma, T.J.A. (1990). Applied Optics 29:2843–2849.
Vater, W., Bohm, K.J., and Unger, E. (1997). Cell Mobility and the Cytoskeleton 36:76–83.
Vogel, G. (1998). Science 280:123.
Weinkauf, R., Schanen, P., Yang, D., Soukara, S., and Schlag, E.W. (1995). J. Phys. Chem. 99:11255–11265.
Weisenberg, R.C. (1981). Cell Motility 1:485–498.
Wittman, C.W., Wszolek, M.F., Shulman, J.M., Salvaterra, P.M., Lewis, J., Hutton, M., and Feany, M.B. (2001). Science 293:711–714.
Woolf, N.J., Young, S.L., Johnson, G.V.W., and Fanselow, M.S. (1994). Neuro Report 5:1045–1048.
Woolf, N.J., Zinnerman, M.D., and Johnson, G.V. (1999). Brain Res. 821(1):241–249.
Wouternsen, H.B. (1999). Nature 402:507–510.
Zettl, A.G., G. (1984). Phys. Rev. B. 29:755–767.
Zhang, S. (2003). Nature Biotechnology 21(10):1171–1178.
Zurek, W.H. (1991). Physics Today 44(10):36–56.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2006 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Mershin, A. et al. (2006). Towards Experimental Tests of Quantum Effects in Cytoskeletal Proteins. In: Tuszynski, J.A. (eds) The Emerging Physics of Consciousness. The Frontiers Collection. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-36723-3_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-36723-3_4
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-23890-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-36723-9
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)