Skip to main content

The Epidemiology of Drowning

Task Force on the Epidemiology of Drowning

  • Chapter
Handbook on Drowning

Abstract

This section consists of portions authored by different professionals, who were responsible for the content and accuracy of their material. The merging of these contributions into a single section was reviewed and accepted by all authors. The views represented are those of members of the Task Force on the Epidemiology of Drowning, but do not necessarily represent the official views of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of the US Department of Health and Human Services, or any other agency of the US Federal Government. This section was authored or co-authored by an employee of the US government and is considered to be in the public domain.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 199.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Barss P, Smith GS, Baker S, Mohan D (1998) Injury prevention: an international perspective. Epidemiology, surveillance and policy. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, pp 151–165

    Google Scholar 

  2. Bierens JJLM (1996) Drowning in the Netherlands: pathophysiology, epidemiology and clinical studies (PhD. thesis). Utrecht, The Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS) [Online] (2002) National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (producer). Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/wisqars [Access date: March 2003]

    Google Scholar 

  4. Toet H (2003) Drowning in the Netherlands: a quantitative analysis. Final paper, World Congress on Drowning, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; 26–28 June 2002. Available from: http://www.drowning.nl

    Google Scholar 

  5. World Health Organization (1999) Bulletin report on “Injury: a leading cause of the global burden of disease”. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

    Google Scholar 

References

  1. Anonymous (1997) From what will we die in 2020? Lancet 349:1263

    Google Scholar 

  2. Cummins RO (1993) The Utstein-style for uniform reporting of data from out of hospital cardiac arrest. Ann Emerg Med 22:37–40

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Merriam Webster (1995) The Merriam Webster dictionary on CD ROM. Zane, Dallas, TX

    Google Scholar 

  4. Modell JH (1971) Pathophysiology and treatment of drowning and near-drowning. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, pp 8–9

    Google Scholar 

  5. Modell JH (1981) Drown versus near-drown: discussion of definitions. Crit Care Med 9:351–352

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Modell JH (1993) Drowning: current concepts. N Engl J Med 328:253–256

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Murray CJL (1994) Quantifying the burden of disease: the technical basis for disability-adjusted life years. Bull World Health Organ 72:429–445

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Murray CJL, Lopez A (1997) Mortality by cause for eight regions of the world: global burden of disease study. Lancet 349:1269–1276

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Szpilman D (1997) Near-drowning and drowning classification: A proposal to stratify mortality based on the analysis of 1831 cases. Chest 112:660–665

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Szpilman D. Definition of drowning and water-related injuries. Final paper, World Congress on Drowning, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; June 26–28, 2002 [cited January 2003]. Available from: URL: www.drowning.nl.

    Google Scholar 

  11. World Health Organization (2003) Facts about injuries: drowning. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

    Google Scholar 

References

  1. Ackerman MJ, Tester DJ, Porter CJ (1999) Swimming, a gene-specific arrhythmogenic trigger for inherited long QT syndrome. Mayo Clin Proc 74:1088–1094

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Bonnie R, Fulco C, Liverman C (1999) Reducing the burden of injury. Institute of Medicine. National Academy Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  3. Conn AW, Montes JE (1980) Cerebral salvage in near-drowning following neurological classification by triage. Can Anaesth Soc J 27:201–210

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Ellis AA, Trent RB (1995) Hospitalizations for near drowning in California: incidence and costs. Am J Public Health 85:1115–1118

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Gardner JW, Sanborn JS (1990) Years of potential life lost (YPLL) — what does it measure? Epidemiology 1:322–329

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Gillenwater JM, Quan L, Feldman KW (1996) Inflicted submersion in childhood. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 150:298–303

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Graf WD, Cummings P, Quan L, Brutocao D (1995) Predicting outcome of pediatric submersion victims. Ann Emerg Med 26:312–319

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Langley JD, Chalmers DJ (1999) Coding the circumstances of injury: ICD-10 a step forward or backwards? Inj Prev 5:247–253

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Murray C, Lopez A (1996) The Global burden of disease: a comprehensive assessment of mortality and disability from diseases, injuries and risk factors in 1990 and projected to 2020. Global Burden of Disease and Injury Series. Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA

    Google Scholar 

  10. National Center for Health Statistics (1991) International classification of diseases, clinical modification, 9th revision. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC, PHS 91-1260

    Google Scholar 

  11. Priest E (1999) Drowning in a closed-water environment: lessons that can be learned. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL

    Google Scholar 

  12. Quan L, Cummings P (2004) Characteristics of drowning according to victim’s age. Injury Prevention (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  13. World Health Organization (1977) International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems — 9th revision. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland

    Google Scholar 

  14. World Health Organization (1992) International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems — 10th revision. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland

    Google Scholar 

References

  1. Barss P, Smith GS, Baker S, Mohan D (1998) Injury prevention: an international perspective. Epidemiology, surveillance and policy. Oxford University Press, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  2. Mackie I (1999) Patterns of drowning in Australia, 1992 to 1997. Med J Aust 171:587–590

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Smith GS, Langley JD (1998) Drowning surveillance: how well do E-codes identify submersion fatalities. Injury Prevention 4:135–139

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

References

  1. Baker SP, O’Neill B, Ginsburg MJ, Li G (1992) The injury fact book, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  2. Barss P, Smith GS, Baker S, Mohan D (1998) Injury prevention: an international perspective. Epidemiology, surveillance and policy. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  3. Brenner RA, Smith GS, Overpeck MD (1994) Divergent trends in childhood drowning rates, 1971 through 1988. J Am Med Assoc 271:1606–1608

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Celis A (1991) Asfixia por inmersion en Jalisco: 1983–89. Salud Pub Mex 33:585–589

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Fauveau U, Blanchet T (1989) Deaths from injuries and induced abortion among rural Bangladeshi women. Soc Sci Med 29:1121–1127

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Langlois JA, Smith GS, Baker SP, Langley J (1995) International comparisons of injury mortality in the elderly: issues and differences between New Zealand and the United States. Int J Epidemiol 24:136–143

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Li GH, Baker SP (1991) A comparison of injury death rates in China and the United States, 1986. Am J Public Health 81:605–609

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Smith GS, Brenner RA (1995) The changing risks of drowning for adolescents in the U.S. and effective control strategies. Adolesc Med 6:153–170

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Smith GS, Howland JH (1999) Declines in drowning: exploring the epidemiology of favorable trends. JAMA 281:2245–2247

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Smith GS, Keyl PM, Hadley JA, et al. (2001) Drinking and recreational boating fatalities: a population-based case-control study. JAMA 286:2974–2980

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Smith GS, Langley JD (1998) Drowning surveillance: how well do E-codes identify submersion fatalities. Injury Prevention 4:135–139

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Smith GS, Langlois JA, Rockett IRH (1995) International comparisons of injury mortality: hypothesis generation, ecological studies, and some data problems. In: Proceedings of the International Collaborative Effort on Injury Statistics, vol 1. National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, Maryland. DHHS Publication No. (PHS) 95-1252:13:1-15. Available from: URL: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ice/ice95v1/ice_i.pdf

    Google Scholar 

  13. Smith GS and the WET ICE Collaborative Group (1996) International comparisons of injury mortality databases: evaluation of their usefulness for drowning prevention and surveillance. In: Proceedings of the International Collaborative Effort on Injury Statistics, vol II. Melbourne Meeting: Working Papers, Melbourne, Australia. Hyattsville, Maryland: Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics; 1996. DHHS Publication No. (PHS) 96-1252:6:1-29. Available from: URL: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ice/ice95v2/c06.pdf

    Google Scholar 

  14. Smith GS (2000) International comparisons of drowning mortality: the value of multiple cause data, Chap. 20. In: Proceedings of the International Collaborative Effort on Injury Statistics, vol III, 1999. Washington DC (2nd Symposium), 2000. Available from: URL: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/about/otheract/ice/pro-iii.htm

    Google Scholar 

  15. Wines M (1999) Vodka and water, a deadly mix. New York Times 4 July 1999

    Google Scholar 

References

  1. Kenyan Ministry of Health (1997) National summary: morbidity and mortality report 1996 and 1997. Ministry of Health, Kenya

    Google Scholar 

  2. Kobusingye O, Guwatudde D, Lett R (2001) Injury patterns in rural and urban uganda. Injury Prevention 7:46–50

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Lerer LB, Matzopoulos RG, Phillips R (1997) Violence and injury mortality in the Cape Town metropole. S Afr Med J 87:298–301

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Peden M (2000) National injury surveillance system, a profile of fatal drownings in South Africa 1999. Final report: a DACST Innovation Fund Project

    Google Scholar 

  5. Uganda Injury Control Center (1997) Trauma registries annual report 1997. Makerere Medical School, Kampala, Uganda

    Google Scholar 

  6. Uganda Injury Control Center (1998) Trauma registries annual reports 1998. Makerere Medical School, Kampala, Uganda

    Google Scholar 

  7. Uganda Injury Control Center (1999) Trauma registries annual reports 1999. Makerere Medical School, Kampala, Uganda

    Google Scholar 

References

  1. Alexe D, Dessypris N, Petridou E (2002) Epidemiology of unintentional drowning deaths in Greece. Book of Abstracts, World Congress on Drowning 2002 Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp 26–28

    Google Scholar 

  2. The American Academy of Pediatrics (1992) Drowning in infants, children and adolescents. Pediatrics 92(2):292–294

    Google Scholar 

  3. Baker SP, O’Neill B, Ginsburg MJ, Li G (1992) The injury fact book, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  4. Bierens JJ, Velde EA van der, Berkel M van, Zanten JJ van (1990) Submersion in the Netherlands: prognostic indicators and resuscitation. Ann Emerg Med 19:1390–1395

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1998) Drowning fact sheet [Online]. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (producer). [cited September 21, 2001]. Available from: URL: http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/factsheets/drown.htm

    Google Scholar 

  6. Christensen DW (1992) Near drowning. In: Rogers MC (ed) Textbook of pediatric intensive care. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, pp 877–880

    Google Scholar 

  7. Gillenwater JM, Quan L, Feldman KW (1996) Inflicted submersion in childhood. Arch Ped Adolesc Med 150:298–303

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Howland J, Hingson R (1988) Alcohol as a risk factor for drowning: a review of the literature (1950–1985). Accid Anal Prev 20:19–25

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Laflamme L (1998) Social inequality in injury risks. Knowledge accumulated and plans for the future. Karolinska Institute, Department of Public Health Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden

    Google Scholar 

  10. Milliner N, Pearn J, Guard R (1980) Will fenced pools save lives? A ten-year study from Mulgrave Shire Queensland. Med J Aust 2:510–511

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Mizuta R, Fujita H, Osamura T, et al. (1993) Childhood drownings and near-drownings in Japan. Acta Paediatr Jpn 35:186–192

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Morgenstern H, Bingham T, Reza A (2000) Effects of pool fencing ordinances and other factors on childhood drowning in Los Angeles county, 1990–1995. Am J Public Health 90:595–601

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Consumers’ Association of Quality of Life (1998) Safety on ferryboats. “EKPIZO” Consumers’ Association of Quality of Life bulletin 1:23–26

    Google Scholar 

  14. Smith GS, Branas CC, Miller TR (1999) Fatal non-traffic injuries involving alcohol: a meta-analysis. Ann Emerg Med 33:659–668

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Smith GS, Keyl PM, Hadley JA, et al. (2001) Drinking and recreational boating fatalities: a population-based case-control study. JAMA 286:2974–2980

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Spzilman D (1997) Near-drowning and drowning classification in children: a proposal to stratify mortality based on the analysis of 1831 cases. CHEST 112:660–665

    Google Scholar 

  17. US Consumer Product Safety Commission (1998) Backyard pool: always supervise children [cited March 17, 2003]. Available from: URL: http://www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/chdrown/5097html

    Google Scholar 

  18. Wintemute GJ (1990) Childhood drowning and near drowning in the United States. Am J Dis Child 144:663–669

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Wintemute GJ, Drake C, Wright M (1991) Immersion events in residential swimming pools: evidence for the experience effect. Am J Dis Child 101:200–203

    Google Scholar 

  20. World Health Organization (1999) Injury, a leading cause of global burden of disease. Bulletin Report. Violence and Injury Prevention Team, Geneva, Switzerland

    Google Scholar 

  21. Wyndham CH (1986) Deaths from accidents, poisoning and violence — differences between the various population groups in the RSA. S Afr Med J 69:556–558

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

References

  1. Ashby K, Routley V, Stathakis V (1998) Enforcing legislative and regulatory injury prevention strategies. Hazard VISS 34:1–12

    Google Scholar 

  2. Fenner PJ, Harrison SL, Williamson JA, Williamson BD (1995) Success of surf lifesaving resuscitations in Queensland, 1973–1992. Med J Aust 163:580–583

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Harborview Injury Prevention and Research Center (2001) Drowning scope of the problem [cited September 15, 2001]. Available from: URL: http://depts.washington.edu/hiprc/childinjury/topic/drowning/

    Google Scholar 

  4. Kyriacou DN, Arcinue EL, Peek C, Kraus JF (1994) Effect of immediate resuscitation on children with submersion injury. Pediatrics 94:137–142

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Lincoln JM, Conway GA (2001) Commercial fishing fatalities in Alaska: risk factors and prevention strategies. NIOSH; September 1997 [cited September 15, 2001]. Available from: URL: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/97163_58.html

    Google Scholar 

  6. Manolios N, Mackie I (1988) Drowning and near-drowning on Australian beaches patrolled by life-savers: a 10-year study, 1973–1983. Med J Aust 148:165–171

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Morgenstern H, Bingham T, Reza A (2000) Effects of pool-fencing ordinances and other factors on childhood drowning in Los Angeles County, 1990–1995. Am J Publ Health 90:595–601

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Morrison L, Chalmers DJ, Langley JD, et al. (1999) Achieving compliance with pool fencing legislation in New Zealand: a survey of regulatory authorities. Injury Prevention 5:114–118

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Quan L, Bennett E, Cummings P, et al. CD (1998) Are life vests worn? A multiregional observational study of personal flotation device use in small boats. Injury Prevention 4:203–205

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Sawyer S, Barss P (1998) Stay with the boat or swim for shore? A comparison of drowning victim and survivor responses to immersion following a capsize or swamping [Abstract]. Proceedings of the Fourth World Conference on Injury Prevention and Control; 17–20 May 1998, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  11. Smith GS (1995) Drowning prevention in children: the need for new strategies. Injury Prevention 1:216–217

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

References

  1. Abraham PP (2001) International comparison of occupational injuries among commercial fishers of selected northern countries and regions. Barents Newsl Occup Health Safety 4:24

    Google Scholar 

  2. Anonymous (1998) Encyclopedia of occupational health and safety, 4th edn, vol III. Fishing general profile. International Labour Office, Geneva, Switzerland, p 66.2

    Google Scholar 

  3. (Anonymous) (1998) Encyclopedia of occupational health and safety, 4th edn, vol III. Fishing health problems and disease patterns. International Labour Office, Geneva, Switzerland, p 66.14

    Google Scholar 

  4. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (2001) Safety at sea as an integral part of fisheries management. FAO Fisheries Circular No. 966, FAO, Rome, Italy

    Google Scholar 

  5. Lincoln JM, Conway GA (1999) Preventing commercial fishing deaths in Alaska. Occup Environ Med 56:691–695

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (1997) Commercial fishing fatalities in Alaska: risk factors and prevention strategies. Current Intelligence Bulletin #58. DHHS (NIOSH), Cincinnati, OH, Pub. No. 97-163

    Google Scholar 

  7. National Research Council, Marine Board, Committee on Fishing Vessel Safety (1991) Fishing vessel safety: blue print for a national program. National Academy Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2006 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Branche, C.M., van Beeck, E. (2006). The Epidemiology of Drowning. In: Bierens, J.J.L.M. (eds) Handbook on Drowning. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-29656-5_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-29656-5_2

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-540-43973-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-540-29656-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics