Abstract
A brief overview of the foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) literature over the last 100 years will give the impression that a great deal is known about the immune response of livestock to infection and vaccination. At the practical level, this is indeed the case and our knowledge is more than adequate in relation to the production and supply of potent vaccines for the control of the disease. The deficiencies in our understanding of the immune response are at the fundamental level and, arguably, stand in the way of its rational manipulation to achieve goals such as life-long immunity conferred by vaccination. Most of the research activity to date has focused on T cell dependency of the immune response of livestock and important B (and probably T) cell epitopes and has been used by researchers to design highly sophisticated novel vaccines and delivery systems. None of these, to the author’s knowledge, exceeds the potency obtained with a good commercial vaccine. Although it is not yet possible to see a clear direction for the development of improved formulations, it is important to reflect on our current knowledge of natural and vaccine-induced immunity and some of the issues surrounding modern inactivated FMD vaccines. This process will perhaps help to discriminate the fact from the fiction and serve to focus on precisely what is needed or desirable for improved products.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Abu Elzein EME, Crowther JR (1981) Detection and quantification of IgM, IgA, IgG1 and IgG2 antibodies against foot-and-mouth disease virus from bovine sera using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J. Hyg. Camb 86:79–85
Ahl R, Haas B, Lorenz RJ, Wittmann G (1990) Alternative potency test of FMD vaccines and results of comparative antibody assays in different cell systems and ELISA. In Report of the Session of the Research Group of the Standing Technical Committee of the European Commission for the Control of Foot-and-Mouth Disease. Lindholm, Denmark, 25–29 June. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Rome, 51–60
Anderson EC, Doughty WJ, Anderson J (1976) The effect of repeated vaccination in an enzootic foot-and-mouth disease area on the incidence of virus carrier cattle. J. Hyg. Camb 73:229–235
Bahnemann HG (1990) Inactivation of viral antigens for vaccine preparation with particular reference to the application of binary ethyleneimine. Vaccine 8:299–303
Barnett PV, Cox SJ, Aggarwal N, Gerber H, McCullough KC (2002) Further studies on the early protective responses of pigs following immunisation with high potency foot and mouth disease vaccine. Vaccine 20:3197–3208
Barteling SJ, Vreeswijk J (1991) Developments in foot-and-mouth disease vaccines. Vaccine 9:75–88.
Bergmann IE, Augé De Mello P, Neitzert E, Beck E, Gomes I (1993) Diagnosis of persistent aphthovirus infection and its differentiation from vaccination responses in cattle by use of enzyme-linked immunoelectrotransfer blot analysis with bioengineered nonstructural viral antigens. Am. J. Vet. Res 54:825–831
Black L, Rweyemamu MM, Boge A (1984) Revaccination response of cattle as a function of the 140S foot-and-mouth disease antigen concentration. J. Comp. Pathol. 94:417–424
Black L, Nicholls MJ, Rweyemamu MM, Ferrari R, Zunino MA (1986) Foot-and-mouth disease vaccination: a multifactorial study of the influence of antigen dose and potentially competitive immunogens on the response of cattle of different ages. Res. Vet. Sci. 40:303–307
Borca MV, Fernández FM, Sadir AM, Braun M, Schudel AA (1986) Immune response to foot-and-mouth disease virus in a murine experimental model: effective thymus-independent primary and secondary reaction. Immunology 59:261–267
Cartwright B, Chapman WG, Sharpe RT (1982) Stimulation by heterotypic antigens of foot-and-mouth disease virus antibodies in vaccinated cattle. Res. Vet. Sci. 32:338–342
Childerstone AJ, Cedillo-Baron L, Foster-Cuevas M, Parkhouse ME (1999) Demonstration of bovine CD8+ T-cell responses to foot-and-mouth disease virus. J. Gen. Virol. 80:663–669
Collen T, Pullen L, Doel TR (1989) T cell-dependent induction of antibody against foot-and-mouth disease virus in a mouse model. J. Gen. Virol. 70:395–403
Collen T, Doel TR (1990) Heterotypic recognition of foot-and-mouth disease virus by cattle lymphocytes. J. Gen. Virol. 71:309–315
Collen T (1991) T cell responses of cattle to foot-and-mouth disease virus. Ph.D. Thesis. Council for National Academic Awards, London
Cottral GE, Gailiunas P (1972) Experimental multiple infection of animals with foot-and-mouth disease viruses. Proc. Am. Mtg. U.S. Anim. Hlth. Assoc. 75:441–465
Cottral GE (1969) Persistence of foot-and-mouth disease virus in animals, their products and the environment. Bull. Off. int. Epiz 71:(3–4) 549–568
Cottral GE (1972) Foot-and-mouth disease virus neutralization test cross reactions. Bull. Off. int. Epiz 77:(7–8) 1239–1261
Cowan KM (1973) Antibody responses to viral antigens. Adv. Immunol. 17:195–255
Cunliffe HR (1962) Antibody response in a group of swine after infection with foot-and-mouth disease virus. Can. J. Comp. Med. Vet. Sci. 26:182–185
Cunliffe HR (1964) Observations on the duration of immunity in cattle after experimental infection with foot-and-mouth disease. Cornell Veterinarian 54:501–510
Dellers RW, Hyde JL (1964) Response of sheep to experimental infection with foot-and-mouth disease virus. Am. J. Vet. Res. 25:469–473
De Leeuw PW, Tiessink JWA, Van Bekkum JG (1979) The challenge of vaccinated pigs with foot and mouth disease virus. Zbl. Vet. Med. B. 26:85–97
Doel TR, Baccarini PJ (1981) Thermal stability of FMDV. Arch. Virol. 70:21–32
Doel TR, Chong WKT (1982) Comparative immunogenicity of 146S, 75S, and 12S particles of FMDV. Arch. Virol. 73:185–191
Doel TR, Collen T (1982) Qualitative assessment of 146S particles of FMDV in preparations destined for vaccines. J. Biol. Stand. 10:69–81
Doel TR, Williams L, Barnett PV (1994) Emergency vaccination against foot-and-mouth disease: rate of development of immunity and its implications for the carrier state. Vaccine 12:592–600
Dubourget PH, Detraz N, Stellmann C, Tixier G, Lombard M (1987) Prophylaxis of foot-and-mouth disease: influence of annual booster vaccination on the level and specificity of neutralizing antibodies. Report of the Meeting of the Research Group of the Standing Technical Committee of the European Commission for the Control of Foot-and-Mouth Disease. Lyon, France. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Fish RC, Van Bekkum JG, Lehmann RP, Richardson GV (1969) Immunologic responses in Dutch cattle vaccinated with foot-and-mouth disease vaccines under field conditions: Neutralizing antibody responses to O, A and C types. Am. J. Vet. Res 30:2115–2123
Francis MJ, Black L (1983) Antibody responses in pig nasal fluid and serum following foot-and-mouth disease infection or vaccination. J. Hyg. Camb 91:329–334
Francis MJ, Ouldridge EJ, Black L (1983) Antibody response in bovine pharyngeal fluid following foot-and-mouth disease vaccination and, or, exposure to live virus. Res. Vet. Sci. 35:206–210
Garcia-Valcarcel Munoz-Repiso M (1993) Cellular immune recognition of foot-and-mouth disease virus and derived antigens. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Hertfordshire
Garland AJM (1974) Inhibitory activity of secretions in cattle against foot-and-mouth disease virus. Ph.D. Thesis, University of London
Gibson CF, Donaldson AI, Ferris NP (1984) Response of sheep vaccinated with large doses of vaccine to challenge by airborne foot-and-mouth disease virus. Vaccine 2:157–161
Glass EJ, Oliver RA, Collen T, Doel TR, Dimarchi R, Spooner RL (1991) MHC class II restricted recognition of FMDV peptides by bovine T cells. Immunology 74:594–599
Gomes I (1977) Foot-and-mouth disease: reaction of convalescent pigs to homologous virus exposure. Bol. Centr. Panam. Fiebre Aftosa 26:18–22
Gomes I, Sutmöller P, Casas Olascoaga R (1980) Response of cattle to foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus exposure one year after immunization with oil-adjuvanted FMD vaccine. Bol. Centr. Panam. Fiebre Aftosa 37–38:31–35
Graves JH, McKercher PD, Farris HE, Cowan KM (1968) Early response of cattle and swine to inactivated foot-and-mouth disease vaccine. Res. Vet. Sci. 9:35–40.
Hedger RS (1968) The isolation and characterisation of foot-and-mouth disease virus from clinically normal herds of cattle in Botswana. J. Hyg. Camb. 66:27–36
Hendriksen CFM (1988) Laboratory animals in vaccine production and control: replacement, reduction and refinement. Kluwer Academic Publishers: p.131
Kitching RP, Salt JS (1995) The interference by maternally-derived antibody with active immunization of farm animals against foot and mouth disease. Br. Vet. J. 151:379–389
Kitching RP (1997). Vaccination of calves against FMD in the presence of maternally derived antibody. In Report of the Session of the Research Group of the Standing Technical Committee of the European Commission for the Control of Foot-and-Mouth Disease. Kibbutz Ma'ale Hachamisha, Israel, 2–6 September 1996. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Rome, 191–195
Knudsen RC, Groocock CM, Anderson AA (1979) Immunity to foot-and-mouth disease virus in guinea pigs: clinical and immune responses. Infect. Immun. 24:787–792
Löffler F, Frosch P (1897) Summarischer Bericht über die Ergebnisse der Untersuchungen der Kommission zur Erforschung der Maul-und Klauenseuche bei dem Institut für Infektionskrankheiten in Berlin. Cent. Bakt. Parasit. Infekt. 22:(10/11), 257–259
Manual of Standards for Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines (2000). Foot and Mouth Disease, Chapter 2.1.1. Office International des Epizooties, Paris.
McKercher PD, Giordano AR (1967) Foot-and-mouth disease in swine. I. The immune response of swine to chemically-treated and non-treated foot-and-mouth disease virus. Arch. ges. Virusforsch 20(1): 39–53
McKercher PD, Graves JH, Cunliffe H, Callis JJ, Fernandez MV, Martins IA, Alonso Fernandez A, Gomes I, Auge De Mello P, Palacios CA (1975a) Foot-and-mouth disease vaccines. I. Comparison of vaccines prepared from virus inactivated with formalin and adsorbed on aluminium hydroxide gel with saponin and virus inactivated with acetylethyleneimine and emulsified with incomplete Freund's adjuvant. Bol. Centr. Panam. Fiebre Aftosa 19–20:9–16
McKercher PD, Graves JH, Cunliffe H, Callis JJ, Auge De Mello P, Gomes I, Alonso Fernandez A, Fernandez MV (1975b) Foot-and-mouth disease vaccines. II. Studies on the duration of immunity in cattle and pigs. Bol. Centr. Panam. Fiebre Aftosa 19–20:24–30
McVicar JW, Sutmöller P (1974) Neutralizing activity in the serum and oesophageal-pharyngeal fluid of cattle after exposure to foot-and-mouth disease virus and subsequent re-exposure. Arch. ges. Virusforsch 44:173–176
Mulcahy G, Gale C, Robertson P, Iyisan S, Dimarchi R, Doel TR (1990) Isotype responses of infected, vaccinated and peptide-vaccinated cattle to FMDV. Vaccine 8:249–256
Newman JFE, Cartwright B, Doel TR, Brown F (1979) Purification and identification of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of FMDV. J. Gen. Virol. 45:497–507
Nicholls MJ, Black L, Rweyemamu MM, Gradwell DV (1985) Effect of age on response of cattle to vaccination against foot-and-mouth disease. Br. Vet. J. 141:17–233
Pay TWF (1984) Factors influencing the performance of foot-and-mouth disease vaccines under field conditions. In: Applied Virology. Ed. Kurstak. E. Academic Press 73–86
Pinto AA, Garland AJM (1979) Virus-infection associated (VIA) antigen in cattle repeatedly vaccinated with foot-and-mouth disease virus inactivated by formalin or acetylethyleneimine. J. Hyg. Camb. 82:41–50
Remond M, Cruciere C, Kaiser C, Lebreton F, Moutou F (1998) Preliminary results of a serological survey for residual foot and mouth disease antibodies in French cattle six years after the end of vaccination. In Report of the Session of the Research Group of the Standing Technical Committee of the European Commission for the Control of Foot-and-Mouth Disease. Poiana-Brasov, Romania, 23–27 September 1997, Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Rome, 84–86
Rocha JR, Barrera J, Bustos M (1983) Immune response induced by oil-adjuvanted foot-and-mouth disease vaccine in cattle in tropical areas of Colombia. Bol. Centr. Panam. Fiebre Aftosa 47–48:45–54
Russell WMS (2000). Forty Years On. In ‘Progress in the Reduction, Refinement and Replacement of Animal Experimentation'. Eds. M. Balls, A.-M. van Zeller and M.E. Halder. Elsevier, 7–14
Rweyemamu MM, Black L, Boge A, Thorne AC, Terry G (1984) The relationship between the 140S antigen dose in aqueous foot-and-mouth disease vaccines and the serum antibody response of cattle. J. Biol. Stand 12:111–120
Saiz JC, Rodriguez M, Gonzalez M, Alonso F, Sobrino F (1992) Heterotypic lymphoproliferative response in pigs vaccinated with foot-and-mouth disease virus. Involvement of isolated capsid proteins. J. Gen. Virol 73:2601–2607
Salt JS, Barnett PV, Dani P, Williams L (1998) Emergency vaccination of pigs against foot and mouth disease: protection against disease and reduction in contact transmission. Vaccine 16:746–754
Salt JS (1993) The carrier state in foot-and-mouth disease—an immunological review. Br. Vet. J. 149:207–223
Sellers RF, Herniman KAJ (1974) Early protection of pigs against foot-and-mouth disease. Br. Vet. J. 130:440–445
Sharma R, Presad S, Ahuja KL, Rahman MM, Kumar A (1985) Cell mediated immune response following foot-and-mouth disease vaccination in buffalo calves. Acta Virol. 29:509–513
Siskind GW, Benacerraf B (1969) Cell selection by antigen in the immune response. Adv. Immunol. 10:1–50
Sorensen KJ, Hansen CM, Madsen ES, Madsen KG (1998) Blocking Elisas using the FMDV non-structural proteins 3D, 3AB, and 3ABC produced in the baculovirus expression system. Proceedings of the final meeting of concerted action CT93 0909. The Veterinary Quarterly Vol 20: S17
Steward MW, Stanley CM, Dimarchi R, Mulcahy G, Doel TR (1991) High-affinity antibody induced by immunization with a synthetic peptide is associated with protection of cattle against foot-and-mouth disease. Immunology 72:99–103
Sutmöller P (1971) Persistent foot-and-mouth disease virus infections. In ‘Viruses affecting man and animals'. Ed. M. Sanders. Warren H. Green Inc, St. Louis, Mo. 295–308B
Sutmöller P, Graves JH, McVicar JW (1970) Influence of enterovirus on foot-and-mouth disease virus infection: a hypothesis. Proc. 74th Ann. Mtg. U.S. Anim. Hlth. Assoc. 235–240
Van Lierop MC, Van Mannen K, Meloen RH, Rutten VPMG, De Jong MAC, Hensen EJ (1992) Proliferative lymphocyte responses to foot-and-mouth disease virus and three FMDV peptides after vaccination or immunization with these peptides in cattle. Immunology 75:406–413
Van Lierop MC, Wagenaar JPA, Noort JM, Hensen EJ (1995) Sequences derived from the highly antigenic VP1 region 140 to 160 of foot and mouth disease virus do not prime for a bovine T-cell response against intact virus. J. Virol. 69:4511–4514
Zhang ZD, Hutching G, Kitching P, Alexandersen S (2002) The effects of gamma interferon on replication of foot-and-mouth disease virus in persistently infected bovine cells. Arch. Virol. 147:2157–2167
Zinkernagel RM, Lamarre A, Ciurea A, Hunziker L, Ochsenbein AF, McCoy KD, Fehr T, Bachmann MF, Kalinke U, Hengartner H (2001) Neutralizing Antiviral Antibody Responses. Adv. Immunol. 1–53
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2005 Springer-Verlag
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Doel, T.R. (2005). Natural and Vaccine Induced Immunity to FMD. In: Mahy, B.W. (eds) Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology, vol 288. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-27109-0_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-27109-0_5
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-22419-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-27109-3
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)