Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Blacher RS. On awakening paralyzed during anesthesia, a syndrome of traumatic neurosis. JAMA 1975; 234: 67–68.
Hilgenberg JC. Intraoperative awareness during high dose fentanyl-oxygen anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1981; 54: 341–343.
Greenberg RP, Pauline PD, Newlon G, et al. Prognostic implications of early multimodality evoked potentials in severely head-injured patients. J Neurosurg 1981; 55: 227–236.
Greenberg RP, Griffith RL. Neurophysiologic evaluation and monitoring of brain function. In: Cottrell RL, Turndorf H, eds. Anesthesia and Neursurgery. St. Louis: Mosby, 1980: 401–420.
Levy WJ, Grundy BL, Smith NT. Monitoring the electroencephalogram and evoked potentials during anesthesia. In: Saidman LJ, Smith NT, eds. Monitoring in Anesthesia, 2nd ed. Boston, London, Sydney, Wellington, Durban, Toronto: Butterworth, 1978: 227–267.
Grundy B, Heros R, Tung AS, Doyles E. Intraoperative hypoxia detected by evoked potential monitoring. Anesth Analg 1981; 60: 437–439.
Levy WJ, Grundy BL, Smith NT. Electroencephalography and evoked potentials. In: Saidmann LJ, Smith NT, eds. Monitoring in Anesthesia and Intensive Care. London: Butterworth, 1984: 28–59.
Prior PF. EEG monitoring and evoked potentials. Br J Anaesth 1985; 57: 63–81.
Prior PF. Monitoring Cerebral Function Long-Term Recordings of Cerebral Electrical Activity. Amsterdam: North Holland Biomedical Press, 1979.
Brechmert VL. Current status of electroencephalography in the practice of clinical anesthesia. Clin Anesth 1964: 2: 8.
Fisch BJ. Spehlmanns EEG Primer. Amsterdam, New York, Oxford: Elsevier, 1993.
Cooley JW, Turkey JW. An algorithm for the machine calculation of complex Fourier series. Mathemat Comput 1965; 26: 429.
Findeiss JC, Kien JA, Huse KOW, Linde HW. Power specral density of the electroencephalogram during halothane and cyclopropane anesthesia in man. Anesth Analg 1969; 48: 108.
Sebel PS, Heneghan CP, Ingram DA. Evoked responses-a neurological indicator of depth of anaesthesia? Br J Anaesth 1985; 57: 841–842.
Ingram GS, Payne JP, Perry IR. Computerized frequency analysis of the EEG during induction of anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1976; 48: 275.
Prior S, Faulcconer AJ, Bickford RG, Hunter RC. Electroencephalographic pattern during anesthesia with cyclopropane-correlation concentrations in arterial blood. Anesth Analg 1953; 32: 130.
Levy WJ. Intraoperative EEG patterns: Implications for EEG monitoring. Anesthesiology 1984; 60: 430–434.
Creutzfeld O, Lux HD, Watanabe S. Electrophysiology of cortical cells. In: Pipura DP, Yahr MD, eds. The Thalamus. New York: Columbia University Press, 1966: 209–230.
Andersen P, Eccles JC, Sears TA. The ventro-basal complex of the thalamus: Types of cells, their response and their functional organisation. J Physiol 1976; 174: 370–399.
Andersen P, Anderrsson SA, Lamo T. Some factors involved in the thalamic control of spontaneous barbiturate spindles. J Physiol (London) 1976; 197: 257–281.
Millman J, Halkias C. Integrated Electronics: Analog and Digital Circuits and Systems. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1972.
Gordon M. Artifacts created by imbalanced electrode impedance. Am J EEG Technol 1980; 20: 149–160.
Jasper HH. The ten twenty electrode system of the International Federation. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1958; 10: 371–375.
Katzudsone RD. EEG recording, electrode placement, and aspects of generator localization. In: Numez PL, ed. Electrical Fields of the Brain. The Neurophysics of the EEG. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981: 176–213.
Demetrescu M. The aperiodic character of the electroencephalogram (EEG): A new approach to data, analysis and condensation. Physiologist 1975; 18: 189.
Bickford GR, Billinger T, Fleming NT, Stewart LE. The compressed spectral array: A pictorial EEG. Proc San Diedo, Biomed Symp 1975; 11: 117.
Stoeckel H, Schwilden H, Lauwen PM, Schüttler J. EEG indices for evaluation of depth of anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1980; 53: 117.
Rampil IJ, Sasse FJ, Smith NT, et al. Spectral edge frequency — a new correlate of anesthetic depth. Anesthesiology 1980; 53: S12.
Fleming RA, Smith NT. Density modulation: A technique for the display of three-variable data in patient monitoring. Anesthesiology 1979; 50: 543–546.
Gregory TG, Pettkus DC. An electroencephalographic processing algorithm specifically intended for analysis of cerebral activity. J Clin Monit 1986; 2: 190–197.
Oppenheim AV, Scharfer RW. Digital Signal Processing. Englewood Hall, New York: Prentice Hall, 1975.
Stockard J, Bickford RG. The neurophysiology of anesthesia. In: Gordon E, ed. A Basis and Practice of Neuro-Anesthesia. Amsterdam: Exerpta Medica, 1975.
Clark DL, Hosik EC, Rosner B. Neuroptahological effects of different anesthetics in unconscious man. J Appl Physiol 1971; 31: 884.
Malkin M, Eisenberg D. Correlation between clinical and electroencephalographic findings during the first stage of nitrous oxide anesthesia. J Oral Surg 1963; 38: 564.
Clark DL, Rosner BS. Neurophysiological effects of general anesthetics: 1. The electroencephalogram and its sensory evoked potentials in man. Anesthesiology 1972; 38: 564.
Backman LE, Loefstroem B, Widen L. Electroencephalography in halothane anaesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1962; 8: 115.
Neigh JL, Garman JP, Harp JR. The electroencephalograhic pattern during anesthesia with ethrane: Effect of depth of anesthesia, PaCO2, and nitrous oxide. Anesthesiology 1971; 35: 482–487.
Homi J, Kouchigeri HM, Eckenhoff JB, Linde HW. A new anesthetic agent-forane (isoflurane): Preliminary observations in man. Anesth Analg 1972; 51: 439.
Eger II EI, Stevens WC, Cromwell TH. The electroencephalogram in man anesthetized with Forane. Anesthesiology 1971; 53: 504–508.
Ingvar DH, Spolund B, Ardo A. Correlation between dominant EEG frequency, cerebral oxygen uptake and blood flow. Electroenceph Clin Neurophysiol 1976; 41: 268–276.
Woodburn DM, Rollins LT, Gardner MD. Effect of carbon dioxide on the brain excitability and electrolytes. J Physiol (London) 1957; 129: 798.
Burton GW. Metabolic acidosis during profound hypothermia. Anaesthesia 1964; 19: 118.
Darimont PC, Jenkins LC. The influence of intravenous anaesthetics on enflurane-induced central nervous system seizure ativity. Can Anaesth Soc J 1977; 24: 42.
Freye E, Brückner J, Latasch L. No difference in electroencephalographic power spectra or sensory-evoked potentials in patients anaesthetized with desflurane or sevoflurane. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2004; 21: 373–378.
Moruzzi G. The sleep waking cycle. Rev Physiol 1972; 4: 2–145.
Ghonneim MM, Yamada T. Etomidate: A clinical and electroencephalographic comparison with thiopental. Anesth Analg 1977; 57: 479.
Sebel PS, Bovill JG, Wauquier A, Rog P. Effects of high dose fentanyl anesthesia on the electroencephalogram. Anesthesiology 1981; 55: 203–211.
Smith NT, Dec-Siilver H, Sanford TJ, et al. EEGs during high-dose fentanyl, sufentanil-, or morphine-oxygen anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1984; 63: 386.
Klein SL, Klein VL, End G. The electroenecephalogram under fentanyl-N2O anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1979; 51: S3.
Bovill JG, Sebel PS, Wauquier A, et al. Influence of high-dose alfentanil in anaesthesia on the electroencephalogram: Correlation with plasma concentrations. Br J Anaesth 1983; 55: 199S–209S.
Freye E, Gupta BN. Cardiovasclar effects on selective perfusion of the fourth cerebral ventricle in cats with fentanyl, naloxone and methohexital. Ind J Exp Biol 1980; 18: 29–31.
De Castro J, Van de Water A, Wouters L, et al. Comparative study of cardiovascular, neurological, and metabolic side effects of eight narcotics in dogs. Acta Anaesth Belg 1979; 30: 5–99.
Scott JG, Cooke JE, Stanski DR. Electroencephalographic quantitation of opioid effects: Comparative pharmacodynamics of fentanyl and sufentanil. Anesthesiology 1991; 74: 34–42.
Hug CLJ. Lipid solubility, pharmacokinetics and the EEG: Are you better off today when you were years ago? Anesthesiology 1985; 62: 221–225.
Howie M, Kyre J, Hoffer L, et al. Pharmacokinetic and electroenecphalographic confirmation of alfentanils short duration. Anesthesiology 1983; 59: A318.
Scott JC, Ponganis KV, Stanski DR. EEG quantification of narcotic effect: The comparative pharmacodynamics of fentanyl and alfentanil. Anesthesiology 1985; 62: 234–241.
Freye E, Azevedo L, Hartung E. Reversal of fentanyl-related respiratory depression with nalbuphine; effects on the CO2-response curve of man. Acta Anaesth Belg 1985; 36: 365–374.
Freye E, Levy JV. Tramadol produces analgesia, inmproves cognitive function and increases power in the fast EEG spectrum in elderly patients with osteoarthritis. J Rheumatol 2005; submitted for publication.
Coetzee JF, Maritz JS, Du Toit JC. Effect of tramadol on depth of anaesthesia. Br J Aneasth 1996; 76: 415–418.
Saletu B, Grünberger J, Berner P, Koeppen D. On difference between 1,5-and 1,4-benzodiazepines: Pharmaco EEG and psychometric studies with clobazepam and lorazepam. In: Hindmarch I, Stormer PD, Trimble ED, eds. Human Pharmacology and Clinical Application. London: Royal Soc Med Int Cong Symp Series, 1985: 23-46.
Hartung E, Freye E. An open comparison of propofol and enflurane for prolonged abdominal operations. Anaesthesia 1988; 43: 105–107.
Ferrer-Allado T, Brechner VL, Dymond H. Ketamine-induced electroconvulsive phenomena in the human limb and thalamic regions. Anesthesiology 1973; 38: 333.
Thompson GE. Ketamine-induced convulsion. Anesthesiology 1972; 37: 662.
White PF, Schüttler J, Shafer A, et al. Comparative pharmacology of the ketamine isomers. Br J Anaesth 1985; 57: 197–203.
Schüttler J, Stanski DR, White PF, et al. Pharmacodynamic modeling of the EEG effects of ketamine and its enantiomers in man. J Phamacokinet Biopharm 1987; 15: 241–253.
Rampil IJ, Holzer JA, Quest DO, et al. Prognostic value of computerized EEG analysis during carotid endarterctomy. Anesth Analg 1974; 62: 186–192.
Smidt M, Sharborough FW, Andrson RE, Michenfelder JD. Cerebral blood flow measurements and electroencephalograms during carotid endarterectomy. J Neurosurg 1974; 41: 310–320.
Trojabard W, Boysen G. Relation between EEG regional cerebral blood flow and internal carotid artery endarterectomy. Electroenceph Clin Neurophysiol 1973; 34: 61.
Niedermeyer E, Lopez dS, F. Electroencephalography: Basic Principles, Clinical Application, and Related Fields. Baltimore: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1982.
Silvay G, Mindlich BP, Owitz S, et al. Evaluation of a new cerebral function monitor during open-heart surgery. MSJM 1983; 546: 44–47.
Sharborough FW, Messick JM, Smidt TM. Correlation of continuous electroencephalograms with cerebral blood flow measurements during carotid endarterctomy. Stroke 1973; 4: 674–683.
Study ECftACA. Endarterectomy or asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis. JAMA 1995; 273: 1421–1428.
Moore WS, Barnett HJM, Beebe HG, et al. Guidelines for carotid endarterectomy. Stroke 1995; 26: 188–201.
Wober C, Zeitlhofer J, Asenbaum S, et al. Monitoring of median nerve somatosensory evoked potentials in carotid surgery. J Clin Neurophysiol 1989; 15: 429–438.
Green RM, Messick WJ, Ricotta JJ, et al. Benefits, shortcomings and costs of EEG monitoring. Ann Surg 1985; 201: 785–792.
Kresowik TF, Worsey J, Khoury MD, et al. Limitations of electroencephalographic monitoring in the detection of cerebral ischemia accompanying carotid endarterectomy. J Vasc Surg 1991; 13: 439–443.
Fode NC, Sundt TM, Robertson JT, et al. Multicenter retrospective review of results and complications of carotid endarterectomy in 1981. Stroke 1986; 17: 370–376.
Deriu GP, Ballotta EN, Franceschi L, et al. EEG monitoring, selective shunting and patch graft angioplasty in carotid endarterectomy. Early and longterm results. J Cardiovasc Surg 1988; 29: 499–508.
Nuwer MR. Intraoperative electroencephalography. J Clin Neurophysiol 1993; 10: 437–444.
Lennard N, Smith J, Dumville J, et al. Prevention of postoperative thrombotic stroke after carotid endarterectomy: The role of transcranial Doppler ultrasound. J Vasc Surg 1997; 26: 579–584.
Ferguson GG. Intra-operative monitoring and internal shunts: Are they necessary in carotid endarterctomy? Stroke 1982; 13: 287.
Cohen ME, Olzowska JS, Subramamian S. Electroenecephalographic and neurologic correlates of deep hypothermia and circular asrrest in infants. Ann Thorac Surg 1978; 20: 238–244.
Branthwaite MA. Prevention of neurological damage during open-heart surgery. Thorax 1977; 20: 258–261.
Bischoff P, Kochs E, Droese D, et al. Topographischquantitative EEG-Analyse der paradoxen Arousalreaktion. Anästhesist 1993; 42: 142–148.
Bischoff P, Kochs E, Haferkorn D, Schulte am Esch J. Intraoperative EEG changes in relation to the surgical procedure during isoflurane-nitrous oxide anesthesia: Hysterectomy versus mastectomy. J Clin Anesth 1996; 8: 36–43.
Kochs E, Bischoff P, Pichlmeier U, Schulte am Esch J. Surgical stimulation induces changes in brain electrical activity during isoflurane/nitrous oxide anesthesia. A topographic electroencephalographic analysis. Anesthesiology 1994; 80: 1026–1034.
Rampil IJ, Cai H, Embree PB, Greenwald SD. “Paradoxical Arousal” during bispectral index monitoring. Anesthesiology 2000; 91: A107.
Messieha ZS, Ananda RC, Hoffman WE, et al. BIS speeds awakening of pediatric patients having dental restorations under general anesthesia. Anesth Analg 2004; 98: S1, S221, S82.
Tang J, White PF, Wender RH. Assessment of Patient State Index (PSI) and Bispectral Index (BIS) values during the recovery period after outpatient surgery. Anesth Analg 2004; 98: S1, S125, S282.
Vernon J, Bowles S, Sebel PS, Chamoun N. EEG bispectrum predicts movement at incision during isoflurane or propofol anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1992; 77: A502.
Kearse L, Rosow C, Zaslavsky A, et al. Bispectral analysis of the electroencephalogram predicts conscious processing of information during propofol sedation and hypnosis. Anesthesiology 1998; 88: 25–43.
Agrawal D, Feldman HA, Krauss B, Waltzman ML. Bispectral Index monitoring quantifies depth of sedation during emergency dept procedural sedation and analgesia in children. Ann Emerg Med 2004; 43: 247–255.
Ahonen J, Sahlman A, Yli-Hankala A, et al. No effect of cardiopulmonary bypass on hypnosis in patients anaesthetized with propofol and alfentanil. Br J Anaesth 2004; 92: 137–139.
Ekman A, Lindholm ML, Lennmarken C, Sandin R. Reduction in the incidence of awareness using BIS monitoring. Acta Anaesth Scand 2004; 48: 20–26.
Shapiro BA. Bispectral Index: Better information for sedation in the intensive care unit? Crit Care Med 1999; 27: 1663–1664.
Jaspers L, De Deyne C, Sels L, et al. Continuous BIS-EEG monitoring to evaluate depth of sedation in critically ill patients. Int Care Med 1999; 25: S251.
Riker RR, Fraser GL. Sedation in the intensive care unit: Refining models and defining questions. Crit Care Med 2002; 30: 1661–1663.
Kodaka M, Okamotot Y, Handa F, et al. Relation between fentanyl dose and predicted EC50 of propofol for laryngeal mask insertion. Br J Anaesth 2004; 92: 238–241.
Gurses E, Sungurtekin H, Tomatir E, Dogan H. Assessing propofol induction of anesthesia dose using Bispectral Index analysis. Anesth Analg 2004; 98: 128–131.
Kearse L, Saini V, deBros F, Chamoun N. Bispectral analysis of EEG may predict anesthetic depth during narcotic induction. Anesthesiology 1991; 75: A175.
Sebel PS, Bowles S, Saini V, Chamoun N. Accuracy of EEG in predicting movement at incision during isoflurane anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1991; 75: A446.
Vernon J, Bowles S, Sebel PS, Chamoun N. EEG bispectrum predicts movement at incision during isoflurane or propofol anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1992; 77: A502.
Alkire MT. Quantitative EEG correlations with brain glucose metabolic rate during anesthesia in volunteers. Anesthesiology 1998; 89: 323–333.
Anderson RE, Barr G, Owell A, Jakobsson J. Entropy during propofol hypnosis including an episode of wakefulness. Anaesthesia 2004; 59: 52–56.
Bein BH, Caliebe D, Tonner PH, et al. Influence of mild hypothermia on state and response entropy and Bispectral Index (BIS) values during cardiopulmonary bypass. Anesthesiology 2003; 99: A327.
Struys MVA, Mortier E. The ability of BIS, spectral entropy and predicted propofol concentrations to measure patient responsiveness during anesthesia with propofol and remifentanil. Anesthesiology 2003; 99: A346.
Bruhn J, Ropcke H, Hoeft A. Approximate entropy as an electroencephalographic measure of anesthetic drug effect during desflurane anesthesia. Anesthesiology 2000; 92: 715–726.
Rampil IJ, Matteo RS. Changes in EEG spectral edge frequency correlate with the hemodynamic response to laryngoscopy and intubation. Anesthesiology 1987; 67: 139–142.
Schwilden H, Stoeckel H. Untersuchungen über verschiedene EEG-Parameter als Indikatoren des Narkosezustands. Anästh Intensivther Notfallmed 1980; 15: 279–286.
Sebel PS, Lang E, Rampil IJ, et al. A multicenter study of bispectral electroencephalogram analysis for monitoring anesthetic effect. Anesth Analg 1997; 84: 891–899.
Bruhn J, Ropcke H, Rehberg B, et al. Electroencephalogram approximate entropy correctly classifies the occurrence of burst suppression pattern as increasing anesthetic drug effect. Anesthesiology 2000; 93: 981–985.
Widman G, Schreiber T, Rehberg B, et al. Quantification of depth of anesthesia by nonlinear time series analysis of brain electrical activity. Phys Rev E Stat Phys Plasmas Fluids Relat Interdiscip Topics 2000; 62: 4898–4903.
Steyn-Ross DA, Steyn-Ross ML, Wilcocks LC, Sleigh JW. Toward a theory of the general-anesthetic-induced phase transition of the cerebral cortex. II. Numerical simulations, spectral entropy, and correlation times. Phys Rev E Stat Nonlin Soft Matter Phys 2001; 64: 011918.
Schneider G, Heglmeier S, Schneider J, et al. Patient State Index (PSI) measures depth of sedation in intensive care patients. Int Care Med 2004; 30: 213–216.
Tang J, White PF, Wender RH. Assessment of Patient State Index (PSI) and Bispectral Index (BIS) values during the recovery period after outpatient surgery. Anesth Analg 2004; 98: S1, S125, S282.
Soto RG, Fu ES, Creighton DD. The impact of addition of N20 on BIS and PSI during a stable sevoflurane anesthetic. Anesthesiology 2003; 99: A319.
Kugler H. Elektroenzephalographie in Klinik und Praxis. Stuttgart, New York: Thieme, 1981.
Bischoff P, Schmidt GN, Jensen K, et al. Narcotrend and Bispectral IndexTM to indicate different conditions of anesthesia. Anesthesiology 2002; 97: A541.
Kreuer S, Biedler A, Larsen R, et al. The Narcotrend a new EEG monitor allows faster emergence and a reduction of drug consumption in propofol/remifentanil anesthesia comparison with Bispectral Index monitoring and a Standard Anesthetic Practice Group. Anesthesiology 2002; 97: A1143.
Bischoff P, Schmidt G, Voigt M, et al. Bispectral Index, Narcotrend, classic electrophysiological and hemodynamic parameters during emergence from target controlled infusion of propofol. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 2001; 13: 375.
Schmidt GN, Bischoff P, Standl T, et al. Narcotrend® and Bispectral Index® monitor are superior to classic electroencephalographic parameters for the assessment of anesthetic states during propofol-remifentanil anesthesia. Anesthesiology 2003; 99: 1072–1077.
Schultz A, Grouven U, Beger FA, Schultz B. The Narcotrend Index: Classification algorithm, correlation with propofol effect-site concentrations, and comparison with spectral parameters. Biomed Technik 2004; 49: 38–42.
Bauerle K, Greim CA, Schroth M, et al. Prediction of depth of sedation and anaesthesia by the Narcotrend™ EEG monitor. Br J Anaesth 2004; 2: 1–5.
Jang JSR. ANFIS: Adaptive-Network-Based Fuzzy Inference System. IEEE Trans Syst, Man Cybern 1993; 23: 665–685.
Sleigh JW, Donovan J. Comparison of bispectral index, 95% spectral edge frequency and approximate entropy of the EEG, with changes in heart rate variability during induction of general anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1999; 82: 666–671.
Struys MRF, Jensen EW, Smith W, et al. Performance of the ARX-derived auditory evoked potential index as an indicator of anesthetic depth. A comparison with BIS and hemodynamic measures during propofol administration. Anesthesiology 2002; 96: 803–816.
Technologists ASoE. Guidelines on intraoperative electroencephalography for technologists. Am J End Technol 1998; 38: 24–25.
Isley MR, Cohen MJ, Wadsworth JS, et al. Multimodality neuromonitoring for carotid endarterectomy surgery: Determination of critical ischaemic thresholds. Am J End Technol 1098; 38: 65–122.
Izac SM, Banoczi W. The Wada test. Am J End Technol 1999; 38: 23–33.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2005 Springer
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Freye, E., Levy, J.V. (2005). Cerebral Monitoring in the Operating Room and the Intensive Care Unit: An Introductory for the Clinician and a Guide for the Novice Wanting to Open a Window to the Brain. In: Freye, E. (eds) Cerebral Monitoring in the OR and ICU. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-4486-0_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-4486-0_1
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-1-4020-3162-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-4020-4486-1
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)