Abstract
On the giant planets and Titan, like on the terrestrial planets, aerosols play an important part in the physico-chemistry of the upper atmosphere (P ≤ 0.5 bar). Above all, aerosols significantly affect radiative transfer processes, mainly through light scattering, thus influencing the atmospheric energy budget and dynamics. Because there is usually significant coupling between atmospheric circulation and haze production, aerosols may constitute useful tracers of atmospheric dynamics. More generally, since their production is directly linked to some kind of energy deposition, their study may also provide clues to external sources of energy as well as their variability. Finally, aerosols indirectly influence other processes such as cloud formation and disequilibrium chemistry, by acting either as condensation nuclei or as reaction sites for surface chemistry. Here, I present a review of observational and modeling results based on remote sensing data, and also some insights derived from laboratory simulations. Despite our knowledge of the effects of aerosols in outer planetary atmospheres, however, relatively little is understood about the pathways which produce them, either endogenously (as end-products of gas-phase photochemical or shock reactions) or exogenously (as residues of meteroid ablation).
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Axel, L.: 1972, ‘Inhomogeneous models of the atmosphere of Jupiter’, Astrophys. J. 173, 451–468.
Baines, K.H. and Hammel, H.B.: 1994, ‘Clouds, hazes, and the stratospheric methane abundance in Neptune’, Icarus 109, 20–39.
Baines, K.H., Hammel, H.B., Rages, K.A., Romani, P.N., and Samuelson, R.E.: 1996, ‘Clouds and hazes in the atmosphere of Neptune’, in D.P. Cruikshank (ed.), Neptune and Triton, The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, USA, pp. 489–546.
Baines, K.H., Yanamandra-Fisher, P.A., Lebofsky, L.A., Momary, T.W., Golisch, W., Kaminski, C. and Wild, W.J.: 1998, ‘Near-infrared absolute photometric imaging of the Uranian system’, Icarus 132, 266–284.
Bakes, E.L.O., Lebonnois, S., McKay, C.P., and Bauschlicher, C.W.: 2002, ‘Photoelectric charging of submicron aerosols and macromolecules in the Titan haze’, Icarus 157, 464–475.
Bakes, E.L.O., Lebonnois, S., Bauschlicher, C.W., and McKay, C.P.: 2003, ‘The role of submicrometer aerosols and macromolecules in H2 formation in the Titan haze’, Icarus 161, 468–473.
Banfield, D., Gierasch, P.J., Squyres, S.W., Nicholson, P.D., Conrath, B.J., and Matthews, K.: 1996, ‘2 µm spectrophotometry of Jovian stratospheric aerosols — scattering opacities, vertical distributions, and wind speeds’, Icarus 121, 389–410.
Banfield, D., Conrath, B.J., Gierasch, P.J., Nicholson, P.D., and Matthews, K.: 1998, ‘Near-IR spectrophotometry of Jovian aerosols — meridional and vertical distributions’, Icarus 134, 11–23.
Banfield, D., Gierasch, P.J., Bell, M., Ustinov, E., Ingersoll, A.P., Vasavada, A.R., West, R.A. and Belton, M.J.S.: 1998, ‘Jupiter’s cloud structure from Galileo imaging data’, Icarus 135, 230–250.
Bar-Nun, A., Kleinfeld, I., and Ganor, E.: 1988, ‘Shape and optical properties of aerosols formed by photolysis of acetylene, ethylene, and hydrogen cyanide’, J. Geophys. Res. 93, 8383–8387.
Coll, P., Cosia, D., Gazeau, M.-C., and Raulin, F.: 1997, ‘New planetary atmosphere simulations: Application to the organic aerosols of Titan’, Adv. Space Res. 19, 1113–1119.
Conrath, B.J., Gautier, D., Lindal, G.F., Samuelson, R.E., and Shaffer, W.A.: 1991, ‘The Helium Abundance of Neptune from Voyager Measurements’, J. Geophys. Res. Suppl. 96, 18,907–18,919.
Courtin, R., Wagener, R., McKay, C.P., Caldwell, J., Fricke K.-H., Raulin, F. and Bruston, P.: 1991, ‘UV spectroscopy of Titan’s atmosphere, planetary organic chemistry and prebiological synthesis. II. Interpretation of new IUE observations in the 220–335 nm range’, Icarus 90, 43–56.
Courtin, R.: 1992, ‘Titan’s UV albedo: Observations and modeling’, Symposium on Titan, ESA-SP 338, pp. 59–67.
Courtin, R., Gautier, D. and McKay, C.P.: 1995, ‘Titan’s thermal emission spectrum: Reanalysis of the Voyager infrared measurements’, Icarus 114, 144–162.
Courtin, R.: 1999, ‘The Raman signature of H2 in the UV spectra of Uranus and Neptune: Constraints on the haze optical properties and on the para-H2 fraction’, Planet. Space Sci. 47, 1077–1100.
Coustenis, A., Schmitt, B., Khanna, R.K., and Trotta, F.: 1999, ‘Plausible condensates in Titan’s stratosphere from Voyager infrared spectra’, Planet. Space Sci. 47, 1305–1329.
Dimitrov, V. and Bar-Nun, A.: 2003, ‘Hardening of Titan’s aerosols by their charging’, Icarus 166, 440–443.
Friedson, A.J., Wong, A.-S., and Yung, Y.L.: 2002, ‘Models for polar haze formation in Jupiter’s stratosphere’, Icarus 158, 389–400.
Fuchs, N.A.: 1964, The Mechanics of Aerosols, Pergamon Press, Oxford, England, 1964.
Hutzell, W.T., McKay, C.P., and Toon, O.B.: 1993, ‘Effects of time-varying haze production on Titan’s geometric albedo’, Icarus 105, 162–174.
Hutzell, W.T., McKay, C.P., Toon, O.B., and Hourdin, F.: 1996, ‘Simulations of Titan’s brightness by a two-dimensional haze model’, Icarus 119, 112–129.
Karkoschka, E. and Tomasko, M.G.: 1993, ‘Saturn’s upper atmospheric hazes observed by the Hubble Space Telescope’, Icarus 106, 428–441.
Karkoschka, E. and Lorenz, R.D.: 1997, ‘Latitudinal variation of aerosol sizes inferred from Titan’s shadow’, Icarus 125, 369–379.
Khare, B.N., Sagan, C., Arakawa, E.T., Suits, F., Callcott, T.A. and Williams, M.W.: 1984, ‘Optical constants of organic tholins produced in a simulated Titanian atmosphere — from soft X-ray to microwave frequencies’, Icarus 60, 127–137.
Khare, B.N., Sagan, C., and Thompson, W.R.: 1987, ‘Solid hydrocarbon aerosols produced in simulated Uranian and Neptunian stratospheres’, J. Geophys. Res. 92, 15,967–15,082.
Khare, B.N., Thompson, W.R., Cheng, L., Chyba, C., Sagan, C., Arakawa, E.T., Meisse, C. and Tuminello, P.S.: 1993, ‘Production and optical constraints of ice tholin from charged particle irradiation of (1:6) C2H6/H2O at 77 K’, Icarus 103, 290–300.
Khare, B.N., Bakes, E.L.O., Cruikshank, D., and McKay, C.P.: 2001, ‘Solid organic matter in the atmosphere and on the surface of Outer Solar System bodies’, Adv. Space Res. 27, 299–307.
Khare, B.N., Bakes, E.L.O., Imanaka, H., McKay, C.P., Cruikshank, D.P. and Arakawa, E.T.: 2002, ‘Analysis of the time-dependent chemical evolution of Titan haze tholin’, Icarus 160, 172–182.
Kerola, D.X., Larson, H.P., and Tomasko, M.G.: 1997, ‘Analysis of the near-IR spectrum of Saturn: A comprehensive radiative transfer model of its middle and upper troposphere’, Icarus 127, 190–212.
Kim, S.J., Goorvitch, D., Drossart, P., Moorwood, A., and Caldwell, J.: 1991, ‘The 2-micron polar haze of Jupiter’, Icarus 91, 145–153.
Lebonnois, S., Bakes, E.L.O., and McKay, C.P.: 2002, ‘Transition from gaseous compounds to aerosols in Titan’s atmosphere’, Icarus 159, 505–517.
Lorenz, R.D., Smith, P.H., Lemmon, M.T., Karkoschka, E., Lockwood, G.W., and Caldwell, J.: 1997, ‘Titan’s North-South asymmetry from HST and Voyager imaging: Comparison with models and ground-based photometry’, Icarus 127, 173–189.
Lorenz, R.D., Lemmon, M.T., and Smith, P.H.: 1999, ‘Seasonal change on Titan observed with the Hubble Space Telescope WFPC-2’, Icarus 142, 391–401.
McDonald, G.D., Khare, B.N., Thompson, W.R., and Sagan, C.: 1991, ‘CH4/NH3/H2O spark Tholin: Chemical analysis and interaction with Jovian aqueous clouds’, Icarus 94, 354–367.
McDonald, G.D., Thompson, W.R., Heinrich, M., Khare, B.N., and Sagan, C.: 1994, Chemical Investigation of Titan and Triton Tholins, Icarus 108, pp. 137–145
McGrath, M.A., Courtin, R., Smith, T.E., Feldman, P.D., and Strobel, D.F.: 1998, ‘The ultraviolet albedo of Titan’, Icarus 131, 382–392.
McKay, C.P., Pollack, J.B., and Courtin, R.: 1991, ‘The greenhouse and antigreenhouse effects on Titan’, Science 253, 1118–1121.
McKay, C.P. and Toon, O.B.: 1992, ‘Titan’s organic haze’, Symposium on Titan, ESA-SP 338, 185–190.
McKay, C.P., Coustenis, A., Samuelson, R.E, Lemmon, M.T., Lorenz, R.D., Cabane, M., Rannou, P., and Drossart, P.: 2001, ‘Physical properties of the organic aerosols and clouds on Titan’, Planet. Space Sci. 49, 79–99.
Molina, A., Moreno, F., and Muñoz, O.: 1997, ‘Aerosol debris in the core and crescent-shaped regions of Comet P/Shoemaker-Levy 9 H and G fragment impact sites on Jupiter’, Icarus 127, 213–220.
Moreno, F., Muñoz, O., Molina, A., López-Moreno, J.J., Ortiz, J.L., Rodríguez, J., Ló pez-Jimenez, A., Girela, F., Larson, S.M., and Campins, H.: 1995, ‘Physical properties of the aerosol debris generated by the impact of fragment H of Comet P/Shoemaker-Levy 9 on Jupiter’, Geophys. Res. Lett. 22, 1609–1612.
Moses, J.I., Allen, M., and Yung, Y.L.: 1992, ‘Hydrocarbon nucleation and aerosol formation in Neptune’s atmosphere’, Icarus 99, 318–346.
Moses, J.I., Rages, K., and Pollack, J.B.: 1995, ‘An analysis of Neptune’s stratospheric haze using high-phase-angle Voyager images’, Icarus 113, 232–266.
Muñoz, O., Moreno, F., and Molina, A.: 1996, ‘Aerosol properties of debris from fragments E/F of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9’, Icarus 121, 305–310.
Ortiz, J.L., Muñoz, O., Moreno, F., Molina, A., Herbst, T.M., Birkle, K., Böhnhardt, H. and Hamilton, D.P.: 1995, ‘Models of the SL9 collision-generated hazes’, Geophys. Res. Lett. 22, 1605–1608.
Pryor, W.R. and Hord, C.W.: 1991, ‘A study of photopolarimeter system UV absorption data on Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune: Implications for auroral haze formation’, Icarus 91, 161–172.
Pryor, W.R., West, R.A., Simmons, K.E., and Delitsky, M.: 1992, ‘High-phase-angle observations of Neptune at 2650 and 7500 Å — haze structure and particle properties’, Icarus 99, 302–317.
Pryor, W.R., Na, C.Y., Cochran, A.L., Cochran, W.D., Barker, E.S., Armosky, B.J., and Pulliam, C.E.: 1997a, ‘McDonald observatory data on the Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 impacts on Jupiter and the resulting haze particles’, Planet. Space Sci. 45, 1299–1313.
Pryor, W.R., West, R.A., and Simmons, K.E.: 1997b, ‘High-phase angle observations of Uranus at 2650 Å: Haze structure and particle properties’, Icarus 127, 508–522.
Ragent, B., Colburn, D.S., Avrin, P., and Rages, K.A.: 1996, ‘Results of the Galileo probe nephelometer experiment’, Science 272, 854–856.
Ragent, B., Colburn, D.S., Rages, K.A., Knight, T.C.D., Avrin, P., Orton, G.S., Yanamandra-Fisher, P.A., and Grams, G.W.: 1998, ‘The clouds of Jupiter: Results of the Galileo Jupiter mission probe nephelometer experiment’, J. Geophys. Res. 103, 22891–22910.
Rages, K., Pollack, J.B., Tomasko, M.G., and Doose, L.R.: 1991, ‘Properties of scatterers in the troposphere and lower stratosphere of Uranus based on Voyager imaging data’, Icarus 89, 359–376.
Rages, K., Beebe, R., and Senske, D.: 1999, ‘Jovian stratospheric hazes: The high-phase angle view from Galileo’, Icarus 139, 211–226.
Ramirez, S.I., Coll, P., Da Silva, A., Navarro-Gonzalez, R., Lafait, J., and Raulin, F.: 2002, ‘Complex refractive index of Titan’s analogues in the 200–900 nm domain’, Icarus 156, 515–529.
Rannou, P., Cabane, M., Chassefière, E., Botet, R., McKay, C.P., and Courtin, R.: 1995, ‘Titan’s geometric albedo: Role of the fractal structure of the aerosols’, Icarus 118, 355–372.
Rannou, P., Cabane, M., Botet, R., and Chassefière, E.: 1997, ‘A new interpretation of scattered light measurements at Titan’s limb’, J. Geophys. Res. 102, 10,997–11,013.
Rannou, P., Ferrari, C., Rages, K., Roos-Serote, M., and Cabanes, M.: 2000, ‘Characterization of aerosols in the detached haze layer of Titan’, Icarus 147, 267–281.
Rannou, P., Hourdin, F., and McKay, C.P.: 2002, ‘A wind origin for Titan’s haze structure’, Nature 418, 853–856.
Rannou, P., McKay, C.P., and Lorenz, R.D.: 2003, ‘A model of Titan’s haze of fractal aerosols constrained by multiple observations’, Planet. Space Sci. 51, 963–976.
Romani, P.N., Bishop, J., Bézard, B., and Atreya, S.: 1993, ‘Methane photochemistry on Neptune: Ethane and acetylene mixing ratios and haze production’, Icarus 106, 442–463.
Rosenqvist, J., et al.: 1995, ‘Four-micron infrared observations of the Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 collision with Jupiter at the Zelenchuk observatory: Spectral evidence for a stratospheric haze and determination of its physical properties’, Geophys. Res. Lett. 22, 1585–1588.
Sagan, C., Thompson, W.R., and Khare, B.N.: 1992, ‘Titan’s organic chemistry: Results of simulation experiments’, Symposium on Titan, ESA-SP 338, 161–165.
Sagan, C., Khare, B.N., Thompson, W.R., McDonald, G.D., Wing, M.R., Bada, J.L., Vo-Dinh, T. and Arakawa, E.T.: 1993, ‘Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmospheres of Titan and Jupiter’, Astrophys. J. 414, 399–405.
Samuelson, R.E., and Mayo, L.A.: 1991, ‘Thermal infrared properties of Titan’s stratospheric aerosols’, Icarus 91, 207–219.
Samuelson, R.E.: 1992, ‘Infrared properties of Titan’s clouds and aerosols’, Symposium on Titan, ESA-SP 338, 191–195.
Scattergood, T. and Owen, T.: 1977, ‘On the sources of ultraviolet absorption in spectra of Titan and the Outer planets’, Icarus 30, 780–788.
Scattergood, T.W., Lau, E.Y., and Stone, B.M.: 1992a, ‘Titan’s aerosols. I-Laboratory investigations of shapes, size distributions, and aggregation of particles produced by UV photolysis of model Titan atmospheres’, Icarus 99, 98–105.
Scattergood, T.W., Stone, B.M., and Lau, E.Y.: 1992b, ‘Laboratory investigations of the aerosols in the stratosphere of Titan’, Symposium on Titan, ESA-SP 338, 377–381.
Smith, P.H., and Tomasko, M.G.: 1984, ‘Photometry and polarimetry of Jupiter at large phase angles. II-Polarimetry of the South tropical zone, South equatorial belt, and the polar regions from the Pioneer 10 and 11 missions’, Icarus 58, 35–73.
Stam, D.M., Banfield, D., Gierasch, P.J., Nichoslon, P.D., and Matthews, K.: 2001, ‘Near-IR spectrophotometry of Saturnian aerosols — meridional and vertical distribution’, Icarus 152, 407–422.
Tejfel, V.G.: 1992, ‘Aerosol component of the atmospheres of the Giant planets’, Astronomicheskii Vestnik 26, 3–27.
Thompson, W.R., Henry, T.J., Schwartz, J.M., Khare, B.N., and Sagan, C.: 1991, ‘Plasma discharge in N2 + CH4 at low pressures — experimental results and applications to Titan’, Icarus 90, 57–73.
Tomasko, M.G.: 1976, ‘Photometry and polarimetry of Jupiter’, Jupiter, The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, USA, pp. 486–515.
Tomasko, M.G., West, R.A., and Castillo, N.D.: 1978, ‘Photometry and polarimetry of Jupiter at large phase angles. I-Analysis of imaging data of a prominent belt and a zone from Pioneer 10’, Icarus 33, 558–592.
Tomasko, M.G., West, R.A., Orton, G.S., and Tejfel, V.G.: 1984, ‘Clouds and aerosols in Saturn’s atmosphere’, Saturn, The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, USA, pp. 150–194.
Tomasko, M.G. and Doose, L.R.: 1985, ‘Clouds and aerosols on Saturn’, The Atmospheres of Saturn and Titan, ESA-SP 241, 53–61.
Tomasko, M.G., Karkoschka, E., and Martinek, S.: 1986, ‘Observations of the limb darkening of Jupiter at ultraviolet wavelengths and constraints on the properties and distribution of stratospheric aerosols’, Icarus 65, 218–243.
Toon, O.B., McKay, C.P., Griffith, C.A., and Turco, R.P.: 1992, ‘A physical model of Titan’s aerosols’, Icarus 95, 24–53.
Tran, B.N., Joseph, J.C., Ferris, J.P., Persans, P.D., and Chera, J.J.: 2003, ‘Simulation of Titan haze formation using a photochemical flow reactor. The optical constants of the polymer’, Icarus 165, 379–390.
West, R.A.: 1979, ‘Spatially resolved methane band photometry of Jupiter. I. Absolute reflectivity and center-to-limb variations in the 6190-, 7250-and 8900-Å bands’, Icarus 38, 12–33.
West, R.A., Hord, C.W., Simmons, K.E., Coffeen, D.L., Sato, M., and Lane, A.L.: 1981, ‘Nearultraviolet scattering properties of Jupiter’, J. Geophys. Res. 86, 8783–8792.
West, R.A., Strobel, D.F., and Tomasko, M.G.: 1986, ‘Clouds, aerosols, and photochemistry in the Jovian atmosphere’, Icarus 65, 161–217.
West, R.A.: 1988, ‘Voyager 2 imaging eclipse observations of the Jovian high altitude haze’, Icarus 75, 381–398.
West, R.A. and Smith, P.H.: 1991, ‘Evidence for aggregates particles in the atmosheres of Titan and Jupiter’, Icarus 90, 330–333.
West, R.A., Baines, K.H., and Pollack, J.B.: 1991, ‘Clouds and aerosols in the Uranian atmosphere’, Uranus, The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, USA, pp. 296–324.
West, R.A.: 1996, ‘Particles in Jupiter’s atmosphere from the impacts of Comet P/Shoemaker-Levy 9’, IAU Colloquium 156: The Collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 and Jupiter, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, USA, pp. 269–292.
Wilson, E.H. and Atreya, S.K.: 2003, ‘Chemical sources of haze formation in Titan’s atmosphere’, Planet. Space Sci. 51, 1017–1033.
Wilson, E.H. and Atreya, S.K.: 2004, ‘The current state of modeling the photochemistry of Titan’s mutually-dependent atmosphere and ionosphere’, J. Geophys. Res. 109, E06002.
Wong, A.-S., Yung, Y.L., and Friedson, A.J.: 2003, ‘Benzene and haze formation in the polar atmosphere of Jupiter’, Geophys. Res. Lett. 30, 1–4.
Wong, M.H., Bjoraker, G.L., Smith, M.D., Flasar, F.M., and Nixon, C.A.: 2004, ‘Identification of the 10-µm ammonia ice feature on Jupiter’, Planet. Space Sci. 52, 385–395.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2005 Springer
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Courtin, R. (2005). Aerosols on the Giant Planets and Titan. In: Encrenaz, T., Kallenbach, R., Owen, T.C., Sotin, C. (eds) The Outer Planets and their Moons. Space Sciences Series of ISSI, vol 19. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-4038-5_12
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-4038-5_12
Received:
Accepted:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-1-4020-3362-9
Online ISBN: 978-1-4020-4038-2
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)