8. Conclusions
Although our understanding on how influenza and Thogoto viruses inhibit the IFN response has greatly increased in the last years, there are still many interesting unanswered questions in this field. It will be important to determine the precise mechanisms of action of the NS1 and ML proteins of these viruses, as well as their contribution to host and tissue tropism and to virulence. Research in this area also requires a better knowledge on the cell processes that result in activation of the IFN system and in the induction of the IFN-mediated antiviral state. In addition, development of vaccines and antivirals against influenza virus might be possible by targeting the NS1 protein. If successful, these approaches would also represent a proof-of-concept that can be applied to many other viruses known to contain IFN antagonist genes.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Thompson, W.W., Shay, D.K., Weintraub, E., Brammer, L., Cox, N., Anderson, L.J. & Fukuda, K., 2003, Mortality associated with influenza and respiratory syncytial virus in the United States. JAMA 289:179–186
Webster, R.G., Bean, W.J., Gorman, O.T., Chambers, T.M. & Kawaoka, Y., 1992, Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses. Microbiol. Rev. 56:152–179
Palese, P., 1977, The genes of influenza virus. Cell 10:1–10
Lamb, R.A. & Krug, R.M., 2001. In Fields Virology (Knipe, D.M. et al. eds.) Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, pp1487–1531.
Pinto, L.H., Holsinger, L.J. & Lamb, R.A., 1992, Influenza virus M2 protein has ion channel activity. Cell 69:517–528
Mould, J.A., Paterson, R.G., Takeda, M., Ohigashi, Y., Venkataraman, P., Lamb, R.A. & Pinto, L.H., 2003, Influenza B virus BM2 protein has ion channel activity that conducts protons across membranes. Dev. Cell. 5:175–184
Hongo, S., Ishii, K., Mori, K., Takashita, E., Muraki, Y., Matsuzaki, Y. & Sugawara, K., 2004, Detection of ion channel activity in Xenopus laevis oocytes expressing Influenza C virus CM2 protein. Arch. Virol. 149:35–50
Chen, W., Calvo, P.A., Malide, D., Gibbs, J., Schubert, U., Bacik, I., Basta, S., O’Neill, R., Schickli, J., Palese, P., Henklein, P., Bennink, J.R. & Yewdell, J.W., 2001, A novel influenza A virus mitochondrial protein that induces cell death. Nat. Med. 7:1306–1312
Paragas, J., Talon, J., O’Neill, R.E., Anderson, D.K., García-Sastre, A. & Palese, P., 2001, Influenza B and C virus NEP (NS2) proteins possess nuclear export activities. J. Virol. 75:7375–7383
Wathelet, M.G., Lin, C.H., Parekh, B.S., Ronco, L.V., Howley, P.M. & Maniatis, T., 1998, Virus infection induces the assembly of coordinately activated transcription factors on the IFN-beta enhancer in vivo. Mol. Cell 1:507–518
Sato, M., Tanaka, N., Hata, N., Oda, E. & Taniguchi, T., 1998, Involvement of the IRF family transcription factor IRF-3 in virus-induced activation of the IFN-ß gene. FEBS Lett. 425:112–116
Juang, Y., Lowther, W., Kellum, M., Au, W.C., Lin, R., Hiscott, J. & Pitha, P.M., 1998, Primary activation of interferon A and interferon B gene transcription by interferon regulatory factor 3. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 95:9837–9842
Yoneyama, M., Suhara, W., Fukuhara, Y., Fukuda, M., Nishida, E. & Fujita, T., 1998, Direct triggering of the type I interferon system by virus infection: activation of a transcription factor complex containing IRF-3 and CBP/p300. EMBO J. 17:1087–1095
Weaver, B.K., Kumar, K.P. & Reich, N.C., 1998, Interferon regulatory factor 3 and CREB-binding protein/p300 are subunits of double-stranded RNA-activated transcription factor DRAF1. Mol. Cell. Biol. 18:1359–1368
Sharma, S., TenOever, B.R., Grandvaux, N., Zhou, G.P., Lin, R. & Hiscott, J., 2003, Triggering the interferon antiviral response through an IKK-related pathway. Science 300:1148–1151
Fitzgerald, K.A., McWhirter, S.M., Faia, K.L., Rowe, D.C., Latz, E., Golenbock, D.T., Coyle, A.J., Liao, S.M. & Maniatis, T., 2003, IKKepsilon and TBK1 are essential components of the IRF3 signaling pathway. Nat. Immunol. 4:491–496
Der, S.D., Zhou, A., Williams, B.R. & Silverman, R.H., 1998, Identification of genes differentially regulated by interferon alpha, beta, or gamma using oligonucleotide arrays. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 95:15623–15628
García-Sastre, A., Durbin, R.K., Zheng, H., Palese, P., Gertner, R., Levy, D.E. & Durbin, J.E., 1998, The role of interferon in the tropism of influenza virus. J. Virol. 72:8550–8558
Durbin, J.E., Fernandez-Sesma, A., Lee, C.K., Rao, T.D., Frey, A.B., Moran, T.M., Vukmanovic, S., García-Sastre, A. & Levy, D.E., 2000, Type I IFN modulates innate and specific antiviral immunity. J. Immunol. 164:4220–4228
Pasare, C. & Medzhitov, R., 2004, Toll-like receptors and acquired immunity. Semin. Immunol. 16:23–26
Akira, S. & Takeda, K., 2004, Toll-like receptor signalling. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 4:499–511
Bieback, K., Lien, E., Klagge, I.M., Avota, E., Schneider-Schaulies, J., Duprex, W.P., Wagner, H., Kirschning, C.J., Ter Meulen, V. & Schneider-Schaulies, S., 2002, Hemagglutinin protein of wild-type measles virus activates toll-like receptor 2 signaling. J. Virol. 76:8729–8736
Kurt-Jones, E.A., Popova, L., Kwinn, L., Haynes, L.M., Jones, L.P., Tripp, R.A., Walsh, E.E., Freeman, M.W., Golenbock, D.T., Anderson, L.J. & Finberg, R.W., 2000, Pattern recognition receptors TLR4 and CD14 mediate response to respiratory syncytial virus. Nat. Immunol. 1:398–401
Alexopoulou, L., Holt, A.C., Medzhitov, R. & Flavell, R.A., 2001, Recognition of double-stranded RNA and activation of NF-kappaB by Toll-like receptor 3. Nature 413:732–738
Diebold, S.S., Kaisho, T., Hemmi, H., Akira, S. & Reis e Sousa, C., 2004, Innate antiviral responses by means of TLR7-mediated recognition of single-stranded RNA. Science 303:1529–1531
Heil, F., Hemmi, H., Hochrein, H., Ampenberger, F., Kirschning, C., Akira, S., Lipford, G., Wagner, H. & Bauer, S., 2004, Species-specific recognition of single-stranded RNA via toll-like receptor 7 and 8. Science 303:1526–1529
Yoneyama, M., Kikuchi, M., Natsukawa, T., Shinobu, N., Imaizumi, T., Miyagishi, M., Taira, K., Akira, S. & Fujita, T., 2004, The RNA helicase RIG-I has an essential function in double-stranded RNA-induced innate antiviral responses. Nat. Immunol. 5:730–7
tenOever, B.R., Servant, M.J., Grandvaux, N., Lin, R. & Hiscott, J., 2002, Recognition of the measles virus nucleocapsid as a mechanism of IRF-3 activation. J. Virol. 76:3659–3669
tenOever, B.R., Sharma, S., Zou, W., Sun, Q., Grandvaux, N., Julkunen, I., Hemmi, H., Yamamoto, M., Akira, S., Yeh, W.C., Lin, R. & Hiscott, J., 2004, Activation of TBK1 and IKKvarepsilon kinases by vesicular stomatitis virus infection and the role of viral ribonucleoprotein in the development of interferon antiviral immunity. J. Virol. 78:10636–10649
Kim, M.J., Latham, A.G. & Krug, R.M., 2002, Human influenza viruses activate an interferon-independent transcription of cellular antiviral genes: Outcome with influenza A virus is unique. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 99:10096–10101
Ludwig, S., Planz, O., Pleschka, S. & Wolff, T., 2003, Influenza-virus-induced signaling cascades: targets for antiviral therapy? Trends Mol. Med. 9:46–52
Isaacs, A. & Lindenmann, J., 1957, Virus interference. 1. The interferon. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 147:258–267
Isaacs, A. & Burke, D.C., 1958, Mode of action of interferon. Nature 4642:1073–1076
Lindenmann, J., 1960, Interferon und inverse Interferenz. Zeitschr. f. Hygiene 146:287–309
García-Sastre, A., Egorov, A., Matassov, D., Brandt, S., Levy, D.E., Durbin, J.E., Palese, P. & Muster, T., 1998, Influenza A virus lacking the NS1 gene replicates in interferon-deficient systems. Virology 252:324–330
Enami, M. & Palese, P., 1991, High-efficiency formation of influenza virus transfectants. J. Virol. 65:2711–2713
Diaz, M.O., Ziemin, S., Le Beau, M.M., Pitha, P., Smith, S.D., Chilcote, R.R. & Rowley, J.D., 1988, Homozygous deletion of the alpha-and beta 1-interferon genes in human leukemia and derived cell lines. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85:5259–5263
Sekellick, M.J., Biggers, W.J. & Marcus, P.I., 1990, Development of the interferon system. I. In chicken cells development in ovo continues on time in vitro. In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol. 26:997–1003
Talon, J., Salvatore, M., O’Neill, R.E., Nakaya, Y., Zheng, H., Muster, T., García-Sastre, A. & Palese, P., 2000, Influenza A and B viruses expressing altered NS1 proteins: a vaccine approach. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 97:4309–4314
Talon, J., Horvath, C.M., Polley, R., Basler, C.F., Muster, T., Palese, P. & García-Sastre, A., 2000, Activation of interferon regulatory factor 3 is inhibited by the influenza A virus NS1 protein. J. Virol. 74:7989–7996
Wang, X., Li, M., Zheng, H., Muster, T., Palese, P., Beg, A.A. & García-Sastre, A., 2000, Influenza A virus NS1 protein prevents the activation of NF-κB and induction of type I IFN. J. Virol. 74:11566–11573
Diebold, S.S., Montoya, M., Unger, H., Alexopoulou, L., Roy, P., Haswell, L.E., Al-Shamkhani, A., Flavell, R., Borrow, P. & Reis e Sousa, C., 2003, Viral infection switches non-plasmacytoid dendritic cells into high interferon producers. Nature 424:324–328
Dauber, B., Heins, G. & Wolff, T., 2004, The influenza B virus nonstructural NS1 protein is essential for efficient viral growth and antagonizes beta interferon induction. J. Virol. 78:1865–1872
Ludwig, S., Wang, X., Ehrhardt, C., Zheng, H., Donelan, N., Planz, O., Pleschka, S., García-Sastre, A., Heins, G. & Wolff, T., 2002, The influenza A virus NS1 protein inhibits activation of Jun N-terminal Kinase and AP-1 transcription factors. J. Virol. 76:11166–11171
Wang, X., Basler, C.F., Williams, B.R.G., Silverman, R.H., Palese, P. & García-Sastre, A., 2002, Functional replacement of the carboxy-terminal two thirds of the influenza A virus NS1 protein with short heterologous dimerization domains. J. Virol. 76:12951–12962
Hatada, E. & Fukuda, R., 1992, Binding of influenza A virus NS1 protein to dsRNA in vitro. J. Gen. Virol. 73:3325–3329
Chien, C.Y., Tejero, R., Huang, Y., Zimmerman, D.E., Rios, C.B., Krug, R.M. & Montelione, G.T., 1997, A novel RNA-binding motif in influenza A virus non-structural protein 1. Nat. Struct. Biol. 4:891–895
Kittel, C., Sereinig, S., Ferko, B., Stasakova, J., Romanova, J., Wolkerstorfer, A., Katinger, H. & Egorov, A., 2004, Rescue of influenza virus expressing GFP from the NS1 reading frame. Virology 324:67–73
Enami, M. & Enami, K., 2000, Characterization of influenza virus NS1 protein by using a novel helper-virus-free reverse genetic system. J.Virol. 74:5556–5561
Wang, W., Riedel, K., Lynch, P., Chien, C.Y., Montelione, G.T. & Krug, R.M., 1999, RNA binding by the novel helical domain of the influenza virus NS1 protein requires its dimer structure and a small number of specific basic amino acids. RNA 5:195–205
Donelan, N., Basler, C.F. & García-Sastre, A., 2003, A recombinant influenza A virus expressing an RNA-binding defective NS1 protein induces high levels of IFN-ß and is attenuated in mice. J. Virol. 77:13257–13266
Geiss, G.K., Salvatore, M., Tumpey, T.M., Carter, V.S., Wang, X., Basler, C.F., Taubenberger, J.K., Bumgarner, R.E., Palese, P., Katze, M.G. & García-Sastre, A., 2002, Cellular transcriptional profiling in influenza A virus infected lung epithelial cells: the role of the nonstructural NS1 protein in the evasion of the host innate defense and its potential contribution to pandemic influenza. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 99:10736–10741
Wolff, T., O’Neill, R.E. & Palese, P., 1996, Interaction cloning of NS1-I, a human protein that binds to the nonstructural NS1 proteins of influenza A and B viruses. J. Virol. 70:5363–5372
Wolff, T., O’Neill, R.E. & Palese, P., 1998, NS1-binding protein (NS1-BP): A novel human protein that interacts with the influenza A virus nonstructural NS1 protein is relocalized in the nucleus of infected cells. J. Virol. 72:7170–7180
Nemeroff, M.E., Barabino, S.M., Li, Y., Keller, W. & Krug, R.M., 1998, Influenza virus NS1 protein interacts with the cellular 30 kDa subunit of CPSF and inhibits 3’end formation of cellular pre-mRNAs. Mol. Cell 1:991–1000
Falcon, A.M., Fortes, P., Marion, R.M., Beloso, A. & Ortín, J., 1999, Interaction of influenza virus NS1 protein and the human homologue of Staufen in vivo and in vitro. Nucleic Acids Res. 27:2241–2247
Chen, Z., Li, Y. & Krug, R.M., 1999, Influenza A virus NS1 protein targets poly(A)-binding protein II of the cellular 3′-end processing machinery. EMBO J. 18:2273–2283
Aragón, T., de La Luna, S., Novoa, I., Carrasco, L., Ortín, J. & Nieto, A., 2000, Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4GI is a cellular target for NS1 protein, a translational activator of influenza virus. Mol. Cell. Biol. 20:6259–6268
Burgui, I., Aragon, T., Ortin, J. & Nieto, A., 2003, PABP1 and eIF4GI associate with influenza virus NS1 protein in viral mRNA translation initiation complexes. J. Gen. Virol. 84:3263–3274
Qiu, Y., Nemeroff, M. & Krug, R.M., 1995, The influenza virus NS1 protein binds to a specific region in human U6 snRNA and inhibits U6-U2 and U6-U4 snRNA interactions during splicing. RNA 1:304–316
Li, Y., Chen, Z.Y., Wang, W., Baker, C.C. & Krug, R.M., 2001, The 3′-end-processing factor CPSF is required for the splicing of single-intron pre-mRNAs in vivo. RNA 7:920–931
Fortes, P., Beloso, A. & Ortín, J., 1994, Influenza virus NS1 protein inhibits pre-mRNA splicing and blocks mRNA nucleocytoplasmic transport. EMBO J. 13:704–712
Lu, Y., Qian, X.Y. & Krug, R.M., 1994, The influenza virus NS1 protein: a novel inhibitor of pre-mRNA splicing. Genes Dev. 8:1817–1828
Marión, R.M., Aragón, T., Beloso, A., Nieto, A. & Ortín, J., 1997, The N-terminal half of the influenza virus NS1 protein is sufficient for nuclear retention of mRNA and enhancement of viral mRNA translation. Nucleic Acids Res. 25:4271–4277
Shimizu, K., Iguchi, A., Gomyou, R. & Ono, Y., 1999, Influenza virus inhibits cleavage of the HSP70 pre-mRNAs at the polyadenylation site. Virology 254:213–219
Noah, D.L., Twu, K.Y. & Krug, R.M., 2003, Cellular antiviral responses against influenza A virus are countered at the posttranscriptional level by the viral NS1A protein via its binding to a cellular protein required for the 3′ end processing of cellular premRNAS. Virology 307:386–395
Williams, B.R., 1999, PKR; a sentinel kinase for cellular stress. Oncogene 18:6112–6120
Gale, M.J. & Katze, M.G., 1998, Molecular mechanisms of interferon resistance mediated by viral-directed inhibition of PKR, the interferon-induced protein kinase. Pharmacol. Ther. 78:29–46
Lu, Y., Wambach, M., Katze, M.G. & Krug, R.M., 1995, Binding of the influenza virus NS1 protein to double-stranded RNA inhibits the activation of the protein kinase that phosphorylates the elF-2 translation initiation factor. Virology 214:222–228
Tan, S.L. & Katze, M.G., 1998, Biochemical and genetic evidence for complex formation between the influenza A virus NS1 protein and the interferon-induced PKR protein kinase. J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 18:757–766
Hatada, E., Saito, S. & Fukuda, R., 1999, Mutant influenza viruses with a defective NS1 protein cannot block the activation of PKR in infected cells. J. Virol. 73:2425–2433
Salvatore, M., Basler, C.F., Parisien, J.-P., Horvath, C.M., Bourmakina, S., Zheng, H., Muster, T., Palese, P. & García-Sastre, A., 2002, Effects of influenza A virus NS1 protein on protein expression: the NS1 protein enhances translation and is not required for shutoff of host protein synthesis. J. Virol. 76:1206–1212
Bergmann, M., García-Sastre, A., Carnero, E., Pehamberger, H., Wolff, K., Palese, P. & Muster, T., 2000, Influenza virus NS1 protein counteracts PKR-mediated inhibition of replication. J. Virol. 74:6203–6206
Dubrovina, T.I., Egorov, A.I., Ivanova, I.A., Pokhil’ko, A.V. & Poliak, R.I., 1995, The effect of mutation in the NS gene on the biological properties of the influenza virus. Zh. Mikrobiol. Epidemiol. Immunobiol. 3:75–79
Sekellick, M.J., Carra, S.A., Bowman, A., Hopkins, D.A. & Marcus, P.I., 2000, Transient resistance of influenza virus to interferon action attributed to random multiple packaging and activity of NS genes. J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 20:963–970
Seo, S.H., Hoffmann, E. & Webster, R.G., 2002, Lethal H5N1 influenza viruses escape host antiviral cytokine responses. Nat. Med. 8:950–954
Chang, H.W., Watson, J.C. & Jacobs, B.L., 1992, The E3L gene of vaccinia virus encodes an inhibitor of the interferon-induced, double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:4825–4829
Smith, E.J., Marié, I., Prakash, A., García-Sastre, A. & Levy, D.E., 2001, IRF3 and IRF7 phosphorylation in virus-infected cells does not require double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase R or IκB kinase but is blocked by vaccinia virus E3L protein. J. Biol. Chem. 276:8951–8957
Xiang, Y., Condit, R.C., Vijaysri, S., Jacobs, B., Williams, B.R. & Silverman, R.H., 2002, Blockade of interferon induction and action by the E3L double-stranded RNA binding proteins of vaccinia virus. J. Virol. 76:5251–5259
Basler, C.F., Wang, X., Mühlberger, E., Volchkov, V., Paragas, J., Klenk, H.-D., García-Sastre, A. & Palese, P., 2000, The Ebola virus VP35 protein functions as a type I interferon antagonist. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 97:12289–12294
Basler, C.F., Mikulasova, A., Martinez-Sobrido, L., Paragas, J., Muhlberger, E., Bray, M., Klenk, H.D., Palese, P. & García-Sastre, A., 2003, The Ebola virus VP35 protein inhibits activation of interferon regulatory factor 3. J. Virol. 77:7945–7956
He, B., Gross, M. & Roizman, B., 1997, The γ(1) 34.5 protein of herpes simplex virus 1 complexes with protein phosphatase 1α to dephosphorylate the α subunit of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 and preclude the shutoff of protein synthesis by double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 94:843–848
Jing, X., Cerveny, M., Yang, K. & He, B., 2004, Replication of herpes simplex virus 1 depends on the γ134.5 functions that facilitate virus response to interferon and egress in the different stages of productive infection. J. Virol. 78:7653–7666
Park, M.S., García-Sastre, A., Cros, J.F., Basler, C.F. & Palese, P., 2003, Newcastle disease virus V protein is a determinant of host range restriction. J. Virol. 77:9522–9532
Didcock, L., Young, D.F., Goodbourn, S. & Randall, R.E., 1999, The V protein of simian virus 5 inhibits interferon signalling by targeting STAT1 for proteasome-mediated degradation. J.Virol. 73:9928–9933
Poole, E., He, B., Lamb, R.A., Randall, R.E. & Goodbourn, S., 2002, The V proteins of simian virus 5 and other paramyxoviruses inhibit induction of interferon-beta. Virology 303:33–46
Katze, M.G., DeCorato, D. & Krug, R.M., 1986, Cellular mRNA translation is blocked at both initiation and elongation after infection by influenza virus or adenovirus. J. Virol. 60:1027–1039
Feigenblum, D. & Schneider, R.J., 1993, Modification of eukaryotic initiation factor 4F during infection by influenza virus. J. Virol. 67:3027–3035
Zürcher, T., Marión, R.M. & Ortín, J., 2000, Protein synthesis shut-off induced by influenza virus infection is independent of PKR activity. J.Virol. 74:8781–8784
Lee, T.G., Tomita, J., Hovanessian, A.G. & Katze, M.G., 1990, Purification and partial characterization of a cellular inhibitor of the interferon-induced protein kinase of Mr 68,000 from influenza virus-infected cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 87:6208–6212
Lee, T.G., Tomita, J., Hovanessian, A.G. & Katze, M.G., 1992, Characterization and regulation of the 58,000-dalton cellular inhibitor of the interferon-induced, dsRNA-activated protein kinase. J. Biol. Chem. 267:14238–14243
Levy, D.E. & García-Sastre, A., 2001, The virus battles: IFN induction of the antiviral state and mechanisms of viral evasion. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 12:143–156.
Donelan, N.R., Dauber, B., Wang, X., Basler, C.F., Wolff, T. & García-Sastre, A., 2004, The N-and C-terminal domains of the NS1 protein of influenza B virus can independently inhibit IRF-3 and IFN? promoter activation. J. Virol.: in press
Wang, W. & Krug, R.M., 1996, The RNA-binding and effector domains of the viral NS1 protein are conserved to different extents among influenza A and B viruses. Virology 223:41–50
Yuan, W., Aramini, J.M., Montelione, G.T. & Krug, R.M., 2002, Structural basis for ubiquitin-like ISG 15 protein binding to the NS1 protein of influenza B virus: A protein-protein interaction function that is not shared by the corresponding N-terminal domain of the NS1 protein of influenza A virus. Virology 304:291–301
Yuan, W. & Krug, R.M., 2001, Influenza B virus NS1 protein inhibits conjugation of the interferon (IFN)-induced ubiquitin-like ISG15 protein. EMBO J. 20:362–371
Zhao, C., Beaudenon, S.L., Kelley, M.L., Waddell, M.B., Yuan, W., Schulman, B.A., Huibregtse, J.M. & Krug, R.M., 2004, The UbcH8 ubiquitin E2 enzyme is also the E2 enzyme for ISG15, an IFN-alpha/beta-induced ubiquitin-like protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 101:7578–7582
Malakhova, O.A., Yan, M., Malakhov, M.P., Yuan, Y., Ritchie, K.J., Kim, K.I., Peterson, L.F., Shuai, K. & Zhang, D.E., 2003, Protein ISGylation modulates the JAK-STAT signaling pathway. Genes Dev. 17:455–460
Hagmaier, K., Jennings, S., Buse, J., Weber, F. & Kochs, G., 2003, Novel gene product of thogoto virus segment 6 codes for an interferon antagonist. J. Virol. 77:2747–2752
Kochs, G., Weber, F., Gruber, S., Delvendahl, A., Leitz, C. & Haller, O., 2000, Thogoto virus matrix protein is encoded by a spliced mRNA. J. Virol. 74:10785–10789
Pichlmair, A., Buse, J., Jennings, S., Haller, O., Kochs, G. & Staeheli, P., 2004, Thogoto Virus Lacking Interferon antagonistic Protein ML Is Strongly Attenuated in Newborn Mx1-Positive but Not Mx1-Negative Mice. J. Virol. 78:11422–11424
Jennings, S., Martínez-Sobrido, L., García-Sastre, A., Weber, F. & Kochs, G., Thogoto virus ML protein suppresses IRF3 function. submitted
Enami, K., Sato, T.A., Nakada, S. & Enami, M., 1994, Influenza virus NS1 protein stimulates translation of the M1 protein. J. Virol. 68:1432–1437
de la Luna, S., Fortes, P., Beloso, A. & Ortín, J., 1995, Influenza virus NS1 protein enhances the rate of translation initiation of viral mRNAs. J. Virol. 69:2427–2433
Falcon, A.M., Marion, R.M., Zurcher, T., Gomez, P., Portela, A., Nieto, A. & Ortin, J., 2004, Defective RNA replication and late gene expression in temperature-sensitive influenza viruses expressing deleted forms of the NS1 protein. J. Virol. 78:3880–3888
Schultz-Cherry, S., Dybdahl-Sissoko, N., Neumann, G., Kawaoka, Y. & Hinshaw, V.S., 2001, Influenza virus NS1 protein induces apoptosis in cultured cells. J. Virol. 75:7875–7881
Morris, S.J., Smith, H. & Sweet, C., 2002, Exploitation of the Herpes simplex virus translocating protein VP22 to carry influenza virus proteins into cells for studies of apoptosis: direct confirmation that neuraminidase induces apoptosis and indications that other proteins may have a role. Arch. Virol. 147:961–979
Zhirnov, O.P., Konakova, T.E., Wolff, T. & Klenk, H.D., 2002, NS1 protein of influenza A virus down-regulates apoptosis. J. Virol. 76:1617–1625
Li, W.X., Li, H., Lu, R., Li, F., Dus, M., Atkinson, P., Brydon, E.W., Johnson, K.L., García-Sastre, A., Ball, L.A., Palese, P. & Ding, S.W., 2004, Interferon antagonist proteins of influenza and vaccinia viruses are suppressors of RNA silencing. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 101:1350–13555
Bucher, E., Hemmes, H., de Haan, P., Goldbach, R. & Prins, M., 2004, The influenza A virus NS1 protein binds small interfering RNAs and suppresses RNA silencing in plants. J. Gen. Virol. 85:983–991
Delgadillo, M.O., Saenz, P., Salvador, B., Garcia, J.A. & Simon-Mateo, C., 2004, Human influenza virus NS1 protein enhances viral pathogenicity and acts as an RNA silencing suppressor in plants. J. Gen. Virol. 85:993–999
Basler, C.F., Reid, A.H., Dybing, J.K., Janczewski, T.A., Fanning, T.G., Zheng, H., Salvatore, M., Perdue, M.L., Swayne, D.E., García-Sastre, A., Palese, P. & Taubenberger, J.K., 2001, Sequence of the 1918 pandemic influenza virus nonstructural gene (NS) segment and characterization of recombinant viruses bearing the 1918 NS genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 98:2746–2751
Seo, S.H., Hoffmann, E. & Webster, R.G., 2004, The NS1 gene of H5N1 influenza viruses circumvents the host antiviral cytokine responses. Virus Res. 103:107–113
Cheung, C.Y., Poon, L.L., Lau, A.S., Luk, W., Lau, Y.L., Shortridge, K.F., Gordon, S., Guan, Y. & Peiris, J.S., 2002, Induction of proinflammatory cytokines in human macrophages by influenza A (H5N1) viruses: a mechanism for the unusual severity of human disease? Lancet 360:1831–1837
Ferko, B., Stasakova, J., Sereinig, S., Romanova, J., Katinger, D., Niebler, B., Katinger, H. & Egorov, A., 2001, Hyperattenuated recombinant influenza A virus nonstructural-protein-encoding vectors induce human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Nef-specific systemic and mucosal immune responses in mice. J Virol 75:8899–908
Takasuka, N., Enami, M., Itamura, S. & Takemori, T., 2002, Intranasal inoculation of a recombinant influenza virus containing exogenous nucleotides in the NS segment induces mucosal immune response against the exogenous gene product in mice. Vaccine 20:1579–1585
Efferson, C.L., Schickli, J., Ko, B.K., Kawano, K., Mouzi, S., Palese, P., García-Sastre, A. & Ioannides, C.G., 2003, Activation of tumor antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) by human dendritic cells infected with an attenuated influenza A virus expressing a CTL epitope derived from the HER-2/neu proto-oncogene. J Virol 77:7411–7424
Bergmann, M., Romirer, I., Sachet, M., Fleischhacker, R., García-Sastre, A., Palese, P., Wolff, K., Pehamberger, H., Jakesz, R. & Muster, T., 2001, A genetically engineered influenza A virus with ras-dependent oncolytic properties. Cancer Res. 61:8188–8193
Muster, T., Rajtarova, J., Sachet, M., Unger, H., Fleischhacker, R., Romirer, I., Grassauer, A., Url, A., García-Sastre, A., Wolff, K., Pehamberger, H. & Bergmann, M., 2004, Interferon resistance promotes oncolysis by influenza virus NS1-deletion mutants. Int. J. Cancer 110:15–21
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2005 Springer
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
García-Sastre, A. (2005). Interferon Antagonists of Influenza Viruses. In: Palese, P. (eds) Modulation of Host Gene Expression and Innate Immunity by Viruses. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3242-0_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3242-0_5
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-1-4020-3241-7
Online ISBN: 978-1-4020-3242-4
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)