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References
J. Hermida, Norms governing launch services by NASA and commercial US private companies, (LL.D. Thesis, Catholic University of Cordoba, Doctorate of Laws Thesis 2000) [unpublished]; J. Hermida, “Argentine Space Law and Policy” (1996) XXI-II Ann. Air & Sp. L at 177.
Under Argentine constitutional law he term “conclude” has been construed to mean “negotiate”. J. M. Ruda, “The Role of the Argentine Congress in the Treaty Making Process” in S. A. Riesenfeld and F. M. Abbott (eds.), Parliamentary Participation in the Making and Operation of Treaties: A Comparative Study (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1994) at 180.
Argentine Constitution, Article 75.22.
F. M. Abbott (eds.), Parliamentary Participation in the Making and Operation of Treaties: A Comparative Study (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1994) Ruda, supra note 941 at 181.
Argentine Constitution, Article 31.
Ekmekdjian v. Sofovich, 315 Fallos 1492, 1511–15 (1992) (Arg.).
Buergenthal, supra note 834 at 219.
J. Koven Levit, “The Constitutionalization of Human Rights in Argentina: Problem or Promise?” (1999) 37 Colum. J. Transnaťl L. at 307. The Court further held that international treaties are presumptively self-executing documents as long as they are capable of immediate operation, without additional institutions.
N. P. Sagues, “An Introduction and Commentary to the Reform of the Argentine National Constitution” 28 U. Miami Inter-Am. L. Rev. at 59.
The American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man; the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; the American Convention on Human Rights; the International Pact on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; the International Pact on Civil and Political Rights and its empowering Protocol; the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide; the International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination; the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Woman; the Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatments or Punishments; the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Argentine Constitution, Article 75.24. The Constitution establishes a special procedure, which requires an absolute majority of all the members of each House for the approval of these treaties.
Hagelin, Ragnar, CSJN (1993).
Koven Levit, supra note 947 at 307.
There have been many proposals to modify Argentina’s National Constitution of 1853/60, which is the fourth oldest constitution still in force. Many attempts were made in the Constitutional Convention of 1957 to modify the Constitution; however, those efforts were frustrated by the lack of a quorum. In 1972, the so-called Fundamental Statute, which was dictated by a de facto military government, introduced a series of constitutional amendments. These amendments are no longer in force, however, because of a curious self-destruction provision in Article 4 of the Fundamental Statute. After Argentina returned to democracy in 1983, the reform process was stimulated by various proposals presented in Congress by legislators from diverse political parties. Sagues, supra note 948 at 43.
The last amendment took place in 1994 and it did not include any reference to outer space issues. The 1994 constitutional reforms are reflections of the myriad experiences which Argentina and Latin America have had with totalitarian rule. The reforms are a partial attempt to address this history and to resolve the tension between either subordinating or wholly incorporating US and other international precepts and principles. The reforms are a careful synthesis attempting to construct an administration of justice whose probity can withstand the unique challenges of Argentina’s complex and sometimes troubled political history. S. N. Vittadini Andrés, “First Amendment Influence in Argentine Republic Law and Jurisprudence” (1999) 4 Comm. L. & Poľy at 149.
Nolon, supra note 48 at 685.
Ibid. at 685.
Argentine Constitution, article 121.
Supreme Court of Justice “Transradio Internacional v. Provincia de Buenos Aires”, Decision 269, p. 92.
Argentine Constitution, article 75.13.
Supreme Court of Justice “Roca Hnos. v. Provincia de Santa Fe”, Decision 188, p. 24.
Argentine Constitution, article 75.13.
Argentine Constitution article 126.
“Commercial Space”, supra note 7 at 20.
S. C. Negro, Cooperación Espacial Comunitaria. Régimen Jurídico. Exploración y Explotación del Espacio (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Ciudad Argentina, 1997) at 72.
Argentine Constitution, Article 75. 18. It reads as follows: “Congress is empowered: [...] To provide for the prosperity of the country, for the advance and welfare of all the provinces, and for the progress of education, drawing up general and university educational plans, and promoting industry, immigration, the construction of railways and navigable canals, the colonization of government-owned lands, the introduction and establishment of new industries, the imports of foreign capital, and the exploration of inland rivers, through laws protecting these aims and through temporary grants of privileges and stimulating rewards.
Argentine Constitution, Article 75. 19. It reads as follows: “To provide everything relevant to human development, economic progress with social justice, the growth of the national economy, the creation of jobs, the professional training of workers, the defense of the currency value, the scientific and technological research and development, their overall diffusion and beneficial use.
Argentine Constitution, Article 116. It reads as follows: “The Supreme Court and the lower courts of the Nation are empowered to hear and decide all cases arising under the Constitution and the laws of the Nation, with the exception made in Section 75, subsection 12, and under the treaties made with foreign nations; all cases concerning ambassadors, public ministers and foreign consuls; cases related to admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; matters in which the Nation shall be a party; actions arising between two or more provinces, between one province and the inhabitants of another province, between the inhabitants of different provinces, and between one province or the inhabitants thereof against a foreign state or citizen.”
Argentine Constitution, Article 117.
Argentine Constitution, Article 75.22.
F. M. Abbott (eds.), Parliamentary Participation in the Making and Operation of Treaties: A Comparative Study (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1994) Ruda, supra note 941 at 179.
Argentine Constitution, articles 49, 11 and 26.
F. Videla Escalada, Derecho Aeronáutico (Buenos Aires: V.P. de Zavalia, 1969) at 1027.
Asociación Aeronáutica Argentina, Informe sobre Política Aérea en Materia de Jurisdicción Nacional y Provincial (AAA: Buenos Aires, 1985) at 9.
Ibid. at 9.
Videla Escalada, supra note 977 at 1027.
Itoiz de Anaorena et al. v. FAMA. Cámara Comercial de la Capital, 27’VIII-1948, Horowitz v. Cruzeiro do Sul, Cámara Comercial de la Capital, 9-VI-1948.
Argentine Constitution, article 11. This reads as follows: “Goods of national or foreign production or manufacture, as well as livestock of all kinds, that may pass through the territory of one province to another, shall be free from the so called transit duties, the same as the carriages, vessels or beasts in or on which they are transported; and no other duty, whatever its name may be, shall be imposed on them by reason of their passing through the territory.”
Argentine Constitution, article 12. This article reads as follows: “Vessels sailing from one province to another shall not be bound to enter, anchor, or pay transit duties; and no preference shall be granted in any case to any port in respect of another, by means of trading laws or regulations.”
Nolon, supra note 48 at 688.
Argentine Constitution, article 41.
It has also adopted the international definition of sustainable development as a means of protecting this environmental right. Nolon, supra note 48 at 689.
Argentine Constitution, article 10.
Ibid. article 17.
Ibid. article 14.
Ibid. article 14.
Ibid. article 14.
“Argentine Space Law and Policy”, supra note 421 at 177.
Argentine Decree 995/91 creating CONAE, Argentine Decree 1185/90 creating CNC.
Argentine Decree 995/91, article 2.
“Recopilación y análisis”, supra note 247 at 6.
Argentine Decree 995/91, article 1.
All international treaties currently ratified, as well as those that Argentina may ratify in the future, are superior to domestic laws, which may not trump an international norm. Koven Levit, supra note 947 at 281.
F. M. Abbott (eds.), Parliamentary Participation in the Making and Operation of Treaties: A Comparative Study (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1994) supra note 941 at 181.
Argentine Decree 995/91, article 2.
“Recopilación y análisis”, supra note 247 at 53.
Argentine Decree 2076/94. It was ratified by the Congress for budgetary purposes without any debate or discussion.
National Space Plan at 3. The National Space Plan gives the following reasons supporting this pivotal premise, which we literally transcribe: (i) It covers an extensive geographical territory, ranging from the tropic to the pole; (ii) economic activities in Argentina are strongly influenced by extensive primary exports (agricultural, fishing, forestry and mining products, plus hydrocarbons), (iii) its society has a development level that requires everyday use and exchange of detailed and quantitative data on its own structure and economy; (iv) the distinctive distribution of its population demands an intensive use of telecommunications; (v) its large productive areas are vulnerable to natural and anthropogenic catastrophes; and (vi) the regional and international links and commitments undertaken by the nation will oblige it to generate and use goods and services deriving from space science and technology.
National Space Plan at 3.
Ibid. at 4.
Ibid. at 5.
“Recopilación y análisis”, supra note 247 at 54.
National Space Plan at 6.
Ibid. at 7.
“Argentine Space Law and Policy” supra note 421 at 177.
The Argentine Air Force had identified as potential launch bases the Experimental Launch Center of El Chamical, located in the province of La Rioja and the Atlantic Experimental Center located in Mar Chiquita, Buenos Aires. Additionally, Argentina could use the Marambio Base in Antartica, where the CNIE had been sending personnel since 1979. Barcelona & J. Villalonga, Relaciones Carnales, La verdadera historia de la construcción y destrucción del misil Cóndor II (Buenos Aires: Planeta, 1992) at 21.
B. M. Mueller, “The Falkland Islands: Will the Real Owner Please Stand Up, (1983) 58 Notre Dame L. Rev. at 616.
For these Air Force officials, who actively participated in the program, the Condor II was an ambitious missile and military development plan. Serious budget cuts produced as a consequence of Argentina’s defeat in the War, led Air Force officials to look for funds in foreign countries. Soon various countries in the Middle East were interested, including Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Libya, and Iraq. It is believed that both Syria and Egypt advanced or invested money with the view to acquiring the missiles. B. Madani, “New Report Links Syria to 1992 Bombing of Israeli Embassy in Argentina”, Middle East Intelligence Bulletin, Vol. 2 No. 3, March 2000, http://www.meib.org/articles/0003_s1.htm accessed on November 1, 2000.
As part of this strategy, for example, Israel pressed Argentina to end the relationship with Cairo, in return for which Israel would deliver 12 promised A-4Q aircraft. Nuclear and Missile Proliferation (Senate — May 16, 1989), Congressional Records, [Page S5444]; Barcelona & Villalonga, J. Villalonga, Relaciones Carnales, La verdadera historia de la construcción y destrucción del misil Cóndor II Buenos Aires: Planeta, 1992) supra note 1020 at 21.
Argentine Decree 995/91.
National Space Plan at 19.
http://www.conae.gov.ar/plan/planespacialc.html accessed on December 14, 2001.
Barcelona & Villalonga, J. Villalonga, Relaciones Carnales, La verdadera historia de la construcción y destrucción del misil Cóndor II (Buenos Aires: Planeta, 1992) supra note 1020 at 22.
CONAE Resolution 252/96 on June 8, 1996 and Argentine Decree 125/95.
CONAE Resolution 463/97.
CONAE Resolution 330/96.
“Satellite Reciprocity”, supra note 526 at 38.
CONAE Resolution 252/96.
CONAE Resolution 330/96.
CONAE Resolution 463/97.
SC Resolution 14/97.
“Satellite Reciprocity”, supra note 526 at 38.
The Liability Convention does not apply to: (i) nationals of the launching State, and (ii) foreign nationals who participated in the operation of that space object. According to Bin Cheng, the first exception is an application of a basic principle of International Law which refrains from dealing with relations between a state and its nationals, and the second one is an application of the principle Volenti non fit jura. B. Cheng, “Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects”, in Jasentuliyana, Nandasiri and Lee, Roy S. K. (eds.), Manual on Space Law (New York: Oceana, 1979) at 101.
Supreme Court of Justice “Morales, Ma. Beatriz v. Provincia de Buenos Aires”, Decision 44984, Sep. 8, 1992.
G. Bidart Campos, “Responsabilidad del Estado por Ejercicio Irregular del Servicio de Seguridad Policial”, 152 (1993) El Derecho at 208.
Argentine Civil Code, article 1109. “Todo el que ejecuta un hecho, que por su culpa o negligencia ocasiona un daño a otro, está obligado a la reparación del perjuicio”.
A. A. Alterini, Lopez Cabana & O. Ameal, Curso de Obligaciones, (Buenos Aires: Abeledo-Perrot, 1986) at 94.
Civil liability doctrine has been developed by the courts and by authors and commentators of the Civil Code. J. J. Llambias; Codigo Civil anotado: Obligaciones en general (Buenos Aires: Abeledo Perrot, 1989); G. Borda, Manual de Derecho Civil: Obligaciones, (Buenos Aires: Abeledo Perrot, 1998) at 293; A. A. Alterini, Lopez Cabana & O. Ameal, Curso de Obligaciones, (Buenos Aires: Abeledo Perrot, 1986) at 104.
G. Ponzanelli, La responsabilità civile (Bologna: il Mulino, 1992) at 52.
N. Mateesco Matte, Aerospace Law From Scientific Exploration to Commercial Utilization (Toronto: The Carswell Company Ltd., 1977) at 159.
Argentine Civil Code, article 1109: “Cuando por efecto de la solidaridad derivada del hecho uno de los coautores hubiere indemnizado una parte mayor que la que le corresponde, podrá ejercer la acción de reintegro.”
Argentine Civil Code, article 1113: “En los supuestos de daños causados con las cosas, el dueño o guardián, para eximirse de responsabilidad, deberá demostrar que de su parte no hubo culpa; pero si el daño hubiere sido causado por el riesgo o vicio de la cosa, sólo se eximirá total o parcialmente de responsabilidad acreditando la culpa de la víctima o de un tercero por quien no debe responder. Si la cosa hubiese sido usada contra la voluntad expresa o presunta del dueño o guardián, no será responsable.”
V. Kayser, Liability risk management for activities related to the launch of space objects: today’s environment and tomorrow’s prospects (DCL, Thesis, McGill University, 2000) [unpublished] at 303.
E. A. Tomlinson, “Tort Liability in France for the Act of Things: A Study of Judicial Lawmaking”, 48 La. L. Rev. 1988 at 1299.
Ponzanelli, supra note 1057 at 70.
Argentine Civil Code, article 1119.
Ibid. article 1122.
L. Hargrave, “Developments in the Law, 1984–85”, 45 La. L. Rev. 1984, at 397.
Hargrave, supra note 1066 at 397. For example, the parents brought the child into existence, guided its development, and produced the kind of individual who caused the damage; they are, therefore, the ones on whom it is more reasonable to place the loss.
Alterini, Lopez Cabana & Ameal, Lopez Cabana & O. Ameal, Curso de Obligaciones, (Buenos Aires: Abeledo-Perrot, 1986) supra note 1055 at 49.
Hargrave, supra note 1066 at 397.
Argentine Civil Code, article 1123.
“Commercial Space”, supra note 7 at 53.
CONAE Resolution 330/96 Preamble.
Ibid. Preamble.
Ibid. article I.
M. A. Warner, “Third Annual Latin American Competition and Trade Round Table: After Seattle: Is There a Future for Trade and Competition Policy Rule-Making?” (2000) 26 Brooklyn J. Int’l L. at 328.
“Commercial Space”, supra note 7 at 52.
Anibal H. Mutti, Space Policy, Conference at INDAE, July 18, 2000 [hereinafter “Space Policy Conference”].
National Space Plan at 15.
Ibid. at 16.
“Space Policy Conference”, supra note 1081.
“Space Policy Conference”, supra note 1081.
Argentine Decree 2076/94.
CONAE Resolution 463/97.
National Space Plan at 8.
Ibid. at 9.
CONAE Resolution 463/97, article IV.
“Recopilación y análisis” supra note 247 at 52.
Argentine Constitution, Article 14. “All the inhabitants of the Nation are entitled to the following rights, in accordance with the laws that regulate their exercise, namely: to work and perform any lawful industry; to navigate and trade; to petition the authorities; to enter, remain in, travel through, and leave the Argentine territory; to publish their ideas through the press without previous censorship; to make use and dispose of their property; to associate for useful purposes; to profess freely their religion; to teach and to learn.”
“Satellite Reciprocity”, supra note 526 at 38.
“Argentine Space Law and Policy” supra note 421 at 177.
CONAE Resolution 303/97.
Argentina has signed and ratified the Basic Telecommunications Agreement negotiated before the World Trade Organization and thus it is bound by its provisions, except for those services specifically included in the list of article II exemptions. G. Oberst, “Satellites and World Trade”, (1999) Regulatory Update at 18.
“Satellite Reciprocity”, supra note 526 at 38.
SC Resolution 3609/99, Argentine Decree 793/99, article 20.
SC Resolution 14/97.
“Recopilación y análisis”, supra note 247 at 55.
“Commercial Space”, supra note 7 at 294.
SC Resolution 14/97.
“Satellite Reciprocity”, supra note 526 at 38.
Ibid. at 38.
SC Resolution 1361/98.
“Satellite Reciprocity”, supra note 526 at 38.
Ibid.
SC Resolution 3609/99, Argentine Decree 793/99, article 22.
Ibid. article 22.
Ibid. article 22.
SC Resolution 14/97.
“Satellite Reciprocity”, supra note 526 at 38.
Oberst, supra note 1104 at 18.
“Satellite Reciprocity”, supra note 526 at 38.
Goldman, supra note 456 at 32.
A. A. Cocca, “Preface”, in J. Hermida, Commercial Space Law: International, National and Contractual Aspects (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Depalma, 1997) at xiii.
Ibid.
Argentine Decree No. 125/95.
CONAE Resolution No. 252/96.
http://www.oosa.unvienna.org/SORegister/regist.htm accessed on December 14, 2001.
“A Launch Provider’s Perspective”, supra note 224 at 1.
CONAE Resolution No. 252/96.
S. Beltrán de Oliva & A. H. Mutti, “Los Contratos Espaciales y el Registro Nacional de Objetos Lanzados al Espacio Ultraterrestre de la República Argentina”, in M. Folchi (ed.) V Temas de Aviación Comercial y Derecho Aeronáutico y Espacial (Buenos Aires: ALADA, 2001) at 129.
CONAE Resolution 252/96.
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(2004). Argentine Space Law and Policy. In: Legal Basis for a National Space Legislation. Space Regulations Library Series, vol 3. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-2532-7_3
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