Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Mucocutaneous Infections in the Immunocompromised Host

  • Chapter
Book cover Clinical Approach to Infection in the Compromised Host

Conclusion

To take advantage of the skin as an early warning the physician and the patient should routinely search for cutaneous and subcutaneous lesions.Unexplained skin lesions should be evaluated by biopsy for culture and histologic examination.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 74.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Bibliography

  • Bowden RA, Ljungman P, Paya CV (eds): Transplantation Infections. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossman ME: Cutaneous Infections in the Immunocompromised Host. William & Wilkins, Baltimore, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

References

  1. Wolfson JS, Sober AJ, Rubin RH: Dermatologic manifestations of infection in the compromised host. Annu Rev Med 34:205–217, 1983.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Wolfson JS, Sober AJ, Rubin RH: Dermatologic manifestations of infections in immunocompromised patients. Medicine 64:115–133, 1985.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Dennis JE, Rhodes KH, Cooney DR, Roberts GD: Nosocomial Rhizopus infection (zygomycosis) in children. J Pediatr 96:824–828, 1980.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Grossman ME, Fithian EC, Behrens C, Bissinger J, Fracaro M, Neu HC: Primary cutaneous aspergillosis in six leukemic children. J Am Acad Dermatol 12:313–318, 1985.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Cone LA, Woodard DR, Byrd RG, Schulz K, Kopp SM, Schlievert PM: A recalcitrant, erythematous, desquamating disorder associated with toxin-producing staphylococci in patients with AIDS. J Infect Dis 165:638–643, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Cupps TR, Cotton DJ, Schooley RT, Fauci AS: Facial erysipelas in the immunocompromised host. Report of two cases. Arch Dermatol 117:47–49, 1981.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Hewitt WD, Farrar WE: Bacteremia and ecthyma caused by Streptococcus pyogenes in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Med Sci 295:52–54, 1988.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Janssen F, Zelinsky-Gurung A, Caumes E, Decazes JM: Group A streptococcal cellulitis-adenitis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol 24:363–365, 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Mascini EM, Jansze M, Schellekens JFP, et al: Invasive group A streptococcal disease in The Netherlands: Evidence for a protective role of anti-exotoxin A antibodies. J Infect Dis 181:631–638, 2000.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Patel M, Ahrens JC, Moyer DV, DiNubiie MJ: Pneumococcal soft-tissue infections: A problem deserving more recognition [see comments]. Clin Infect Dis 19:149–151, 1994.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Rodriguez Barradas MC, Musher DM, Hamill RJ, Dowell M, Bagwell JT, Sanders CV: Unusual manifestations of pneumococcal infection in human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals: The past revisited. Clin Infect Dis 14:192–199, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Jaruratanasirikul S, Kalnauwakul S, Lekhakula A: Traumatic wound infection due to Bacillus cereus in an immunocompromised patient: A case report. Southeast Asian J Trap Med Public Health 18:112–114, 1987.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Khavari PA, Bolognia JL, Eisen R, Edberg SC, Grimshaw SC, Shapiro PE: Periodic acid-Schiff-positive organisms in primary cutaneous Bacillus cereus infection. Case report and an investigation of the periodic acid-Schiff staining properties of bacteria. Arch Dermatol 127:543–546, 1991.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Henrickson KJ, Shenep JL, Flynn PM, Pui CH: Primary cutaneous Bacillus cereus infection in neutropenic children. Lancet 1:601–603, 1989.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Jerdan MS, Shapiro RS, Smith NB, Virshup DM, Hood AF: Cutaneous manifestations of Corynebacterium group JK sepsis. J Am Acad Dermatol 16:444–447, 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Chapman RA, Van Slyck EJ, Madhavan T: Skin lesions associated with E. coli sepsis in a patient with acute leukemia. Henry Ford Hosp Med J 28:47–48, 1980.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Dreizen S, McCredie KB, Bodey GP, Keating MJ: Unusual mucocutaneous infections in immunosuppressed patients with leukemia-Expansion of an earlier study. Postgrad Med 79:287–294, 1986.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Livingston W, Grossman ME, Garvey G: Hemorrhagic bullae in association with Enterobacter cloacae septicemia. J Am Acad Dermatol 27:637–638, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. DiGioia RA, Kane JG, Parker RH: Crepitant cellulitis and myonecrosis caused by Klebsiella. JAMA 237:2097–2098, 1977.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Bagel J, Grossman ME: Hemorrhagic bullae associated with Morganella morganii septicemia. J Am Acad Dermatol 12:575–576, 1985.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Bonner MJ, Meharg JG Jr: Primary cellulitis due to Serratia marcescens. JAMA 250:2348–2349, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Hartmann F, Gheorghiu T, Leupold H, Baer F, Diehl V: Serratia infections in patients with neutropenia. Klin Wochenschr 69:491–494, 1991.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Blumenthal NC, Sood UR, Aronson PJ, Hashimoto K: Facial ulcerations in an immunocompromised patient. Ecthyma gangrenosum. Arch Dermatol 126:529–532, 1990.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Huminer D, Siegman-Igra Y, Morduchowicz G, Pitlik SD: Ecthyma gangrenosum without bacteremia. Report of six cases and review of the literature. Arch Intern Med 147:299–301. 1987.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Sangeorzan JA, Bradley SF, Kauffman CA: Cutaneous manifestations of Pseudomonas infection in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome [letter]. Arch Dermatol 126:832–833, 1990.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Collini FJ, Spees EK, Munster A, Dufresne C, Millan J: Ecthyma gangrenosum in a kidney transplant recipient with Pseudomonas septicemia. Am J Med 80:729–734, 1986.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Bagel J, Grossman ME: Subcutaneous nodules in Pseudomonas sepsis. Am J Med 80:528–529, 1986.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Pham BN, Aractingi S, Dombret H, Arlet G, Hunault M, Degos L: Xanthomonas (formerly Pseudomonas) maltophilia—Induced cellulitis in a neutropenic patient [letter] [published erratum appears in Arch Dermatol 128(10):1378, 1992]. Arch Dermatol 128: 702–704, 1992.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Francis YF, Richman S, Hussain S, Schwartz J: Aeromonas hydrophila infection: Ecthyma gangrenosum with aplastic anemia. NY State J Med 82:1461–1464, 1982.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Gold WL, Salit IE: Aeromonas hydrophila infections of skin and soft tissue: Report of 11 cases and review. Clin Infect Dis 16:69–74, 1993.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Bhawan J, Gellis S, Ucci A, Chang TW: Vesiculobullous lesions caused by cytomegalovirus infection in an immunocompromised adult. J Am Acad Dermatol 11:743–747, 1984.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Antinori S, Galimberti L, Tadini GL, et al: Tuberculosis cutis miliaris disseminata due to multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in AIDS patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 14:911–914, 1995.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Libraty DH, Byrd TF: Cutaneous miliary tuberculosis in the AIDS era: Case report and review [see comments]. Clin Infect Dis 23: 706–710, 1996.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Hudson CP, Wood R, O’Keefe EA: Cutaneous miliary tuberculosis in the AIDS era [letter; comment]. Clin Infect Dis 25:1484, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Stack RJ, Bickley LK, Coppel IG: Miliary tuberculosis presenting as skin lesions in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol 23:1031–1035, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Rohatgi PK, Palazzolo JV, Saini NB: Acute miliary tuberculosis of the skin in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome [see comments]. J Am Acad Dermatol 26:356–359, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Patel R, Roberts GD, Keating MR, Paya CV: Infections due to nontuberculous mycobacteria in kidney, heart, and liver transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 19:263–273, 1994.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Stellbrink HJ, Koperski K, Albrecht H, Greten H: Mycobacterium kansasii infection limited to skin and lymph node in a patient with AIDS. Clin Exp Dermatol 15:457–458, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Nandwani R, Shanson DC, Fisher M, Nelson MR, Gazzard BG: Mycobacterium kansasii scalp abscesses in an AIDS patient [letter]. J Infect 31:79–80, 1995.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Gombert ME, Goldstein EJ, Corrado ML, Stein AJ, Butt KM: Disseminated Mycobacterium marinum infection after renal transplantation. Ann Intern Med 94:486–487, 1981.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Enzenauer RJ, McKoy J, Vincent D, Gates R: Disseminated cutaneous and synovial Mycobacterium marinum infection in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. South Med J 83:471–474, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Lambertus MW, Mathisen GE: Mycobacterium marinum infection in a patient with cryptosporidiosis and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Cutis 42:38–40, 1988.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Rusconi S, Gori A, Vago L, Marchetti G, Franzetti F: Cutaneous infection caused by Mycobacterium gordonae in a human immunodeficiency virus-infected patient receiving antimycobacterial treatment [letter] [see comments]. Clin Infect Dis 25:1490–1491, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Claydon EJ, Coker RJ, Harris JR: Mycobacterium malmoense infection in HIV positive patients [see comments]. J Infect 23:191–194, 1991.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Sack JB: Disseminated infection due to Mycobacterium fortuitum in a patient with AIDS. Rev Infect Dis 12:961–963, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Shafer RW, Sierra MF: Mycobacterium xenopi, Mycobacterium fortuitum, Mycobacterium kansasii, and other nontuberculous mycobacteria in an area of endemicity for AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 15:161–162, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Wallace RJ Jr, Brown BA, Onyi GO: Skin, soft tissue, and bone infections due to Mycobacterium chelonae chelonae: Importance of prior corticosteroid therapy, frequency of disseminated infections, and resistance to oral antimicrobials other than clarithromycin. J Infect Dis 166:405–412, 1992.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Jopp-McKay AG, Randell P: Sporotrichoid cutaneous infection due to Mycobacterium chelonei in a renal transplant patient. Australas J Dermatol 31:105–109, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Swetter SM, Kindel SE, Smoller BR: Cutaneous nodules of Mycobacterium chelonae in an immunosuppressed patient with preexisting pulmonary colonization. J Am Acad Dermatol 28:352–355, 1993.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Friedman BF, Edwards D, Kirkpatrick CH: Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare: Cutaneous presentations of disseminated disease. Am J Med 85:257–263, 1988.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Esteban J, Gorgolas M, Fernandez-Guerrero ML, Soriano F: Localized cutaneous infection caused by Mycobacterium avium complex in an AIDS patient. Clin Exp Dermatol 21:230–231, 1996.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Meadows JR, Carter R, Katner HP: Cutaneous Mycobacterium avium complex infection at an intramuscular injection site in a patient with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 24:1273–1274, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Barbaro DJ, Orcutt VL, Coldiron BM: Mycobacterium avium-Mycobacterium intracellulare infection limited to the skin and lymph nodes in patients with AIDS. Rev Infect Dis 11:625–628, 1989.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Rogers PL, Walker RE, Lane HC, et al: Disseminated Mycobacterium haemophilum infection in two patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Med 84:640–642, 1988.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Kristjansson M, Bieluch VM, Byeff PD: Mycobacterium haemophilum infection in immunocompromised patients: Case report and review of the literature. Rev Infect Dis 13:906–910, 1991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Dever LL, Martin JW, Seaworth B, Jorgensen JH: Varied presentations and responses to treatment of infections caused by Mycobacterium haemophilum in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 14: 1195–1200, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Mycobacterium haemophilum infections—New York City metro-politan area, 1990–1991. MorbMortal Wkly Rep 40:636–637, 643, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Straus WL, Ostroff SM, Jernigan DB, et al: Clinical and epidemiologic characteristics of Mycobacterium haemophilum, an emerging pathogen in immunocompromised patients. Ann Intern Med 120:118–125, 1994.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Lamfers EJ, Bastiaans AH, Mravunac M, Rampen FH: Leprosy in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome [letter]. Ann Intern Med 107:111–112, 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Meeran K: Prevalence of HIV infection among patients with leprosy and tuberculosis in rural Zambia. Br Med J 298:364–365, 1989.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Turk JL, Rees RJ: AIDS and leprosy [editorial]. Lepr Rev 59:193–194, 1988.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Leonard G, Sangare A, Verdier M, et al: Prevalence of HIV infection among patients with leprosy in African countries and Yemen. J Acauir Immune Defic Syndr 3:1109–1113, 1990.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Gormus BJ, Murphey-Corb M, Martin LN, et al: Interactions between simian immunodeficiency virus and Mycobacterium leprae in experimentally inoculated rhesus monkeys. J Infect Dis 160:405–413, 1989.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Kennedy C, Lien RA, Stolz E, van Joost T, Naafs B: Leprosy and human immunodeficiency virus infection. A closer look at the lesions. Int J Dermatol 29:139–140, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Wong R, Tappero J, Cockerell CJ: Bacillary angiomatosis and other Bartonella species infections. Semin Cutan Med Surg 16: 188–199, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Koehler JE, Sanchez MA, Garrido CS, et al: Molecular epidemiology of bartonella infections in patients with bacillary angiomatosis-peliosis [see comments]. N Engl J Med 337:1876–1883, 1997.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Koehler JE, Glaser CA, Tappero JW: Rochalimaea henselae infection. A new zoonosis with the domestic cat as reservoir [see comments], JAMA 271:531–535, 1994.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Schwartz RA, Nychay SG, Janniger CK, Lambert WC: Bacillary angiomatosis: Presentation of six patients, some with unusual features. Br J Dermatol 136:60–65, 1997.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Perkocha LA, Geaghan SM, Yen TS, et al: Clinical and pathological features of bacillary peliosis hepatis in association with human immunodeficiency virus infection [see comments]. N Engl J Med 323:1581–1586, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Tompkins LS: Of cats, humans, and Bartonella [editorial; comment]. N Engl J Med 337:1916–1917, 1997.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Nishimoto K, Ohno M: Subcutaneous abscesses caused by Nocardia brasiliensis complicated by malignant lymphoma. A survey of cutaneous nocardiosis reported in Japan. Int J Dermatol 24:437–440, 1985.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Moeller CA, Burton CSD: Primary lymphocutaneous Nocardia brasiliensis infection. Arch Dermatol 122:1180–1182, 1986.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Kalb RE, Kaplan MH, Grossman ME: Cutaneous nocardiosis. Case reports and review. J Am Acad Dermatol 13:125–133, 1985.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Shapiro PE, Grossman ME: Disseminated Nocardia asteroides with pustules. J Am Acad Dermatol 20:889–892, 1989.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Christoph I: Pulmonary Cryptococcus neoformans and disseminated Nocardia brasiliensis in an immunocompromised host. Case report. NC Med J 51:219–220, 1990.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Hodohara K, Fujiyama Y, Hiramitu Y, et al: Disseminated subcutaneous Nocardia asteroides abscesses in a patient after bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 11:341–343, 1993.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Javaly K, Horowitz HW, Wormser GP: Nocardiosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Report of 2 cases and review of the literature. Medicine 71:128–138, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Shelkovitz-Shilo I, Feinstein A, Trau H, Kaplan B, Sofer E, Schewach-Millet M: Lymphocutaneous nocardiosis due to Nocardia asteroides in a patient with intestinal lymphoma. Int J Dermatol 31:178–179, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Yang LJ, Chan HL, Chen WJ, Kuo TT: Lymphocutaneous nocardiosis caused by Nocardia caviae: The first case report from Asia. J Am Acad Dermatol 29:639–641, 1993.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Almeida L, Grossman M: Widespread dermatophyte infections that mimic collagen vascular disease. J Am Acad Dermatol 23:855–857, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Elewski BE, Sullivan J: Dermatophytes as opportunistic pathogens. J Am Acad Dermatol 30:1021–1022, 1994.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Sequeira M, Burdick AE, Elgart GW, Berman B: New-onset Majocchi’s granuloma in two kidney transplant recipients under tacrolimus treatment. J Am Acad Dermatol 38:486–488, 1998.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Squeo RF, Beer R, Silvers D, Weitzman I, Grossman M: Invasive Trichophyton rubrum resembling blastomycosis infection in the immunocompromised host. J Am Acad Dermatol 39:379–380, 1998.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Demidovich CW, Kornfeld BW, Gentry RH, Fitzpatrick JE: Deep dermatophyte infection with chronic draining nodules in an immunocompromised patient. Cutis 55:237–240, 1995.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Novick NL, Tapia L, Bottone EJ: Invasive Trichophyton rubrum infection in an immunocompromised host. Case report and review of the literature. Am J Med 82:321–325, 1987.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Maor MH: Dermatophytosis confined to irradiated skin. A case report [letter]. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 14:825–826, 1988.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Wright DC, Lennox JL, James WD, Oster CN, Tramont EC: Generalized chronic dermatophytosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus type I infection and CD4 depletion [letter]. Arch Dermatol 127:265–266, 1991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Bufill JA, Lum LG, Caya JG, et al: Pityrosporum folliculitis after bone marrow transplantation. Clinical observations in five patients. Ann Intern Med 108:560–563, 1988.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Yohn JJ, Lucas J, Camisa C: Malassezia folliculitis in immunocompromised patients. Cutis 35:536–538, 1985.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Klotz SA, Drutz DJ, Huppert M, Johnson JE: Pityrosporum folliculitis. Its potential for confusion with skin lesions of systemic candidiasis. Arch Intern Med 142:2126–2129, 1982.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Gottlieb MS, Schroff R, Schanker HM, et al: Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and mucosal candidiasis in previously healthy homosexual men: Evidence of a new acquired cellular immunodeficiency. N Engl J Med 305:1425–1431, 1981.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Imam N, Carpenter CC, Mayer KH, Fisher A, Stein M, Danforth SB: Hierarchical pattern of mucosal Candida infections in HIV-seropositive women [see comments]. Am J Med 89:142–146, 1990.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Carlin EM, Hannan M, Walsh J, et al: Nasopharyngeal flora in HIV seropositive men who have sex with men. Genitourin Med 73:477–480, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. McNeil J, Kan V: Oral yeast colonization of HIV-infected out-patients [letter]. AIDS 9:301–302, 1995.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Lifson AR, Hilton JF, Westenhouse JL, et al: Time from HIV seroconversion to oral candidiasis or hairy leukoplakia among homosexual and bisexual men enrolled in three prospective cohorts. AIDS 8:73–79, 1994.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Decker CF, Tiernan R, Paparello SF: Esophageal candidiasis associated with acute infection due to human immunodeficiency virus [letter; comment]. Clin Infect Dis 14:791, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Prose NS: HIV infection in children. J Am Acad Dermatol 22:1223–1231, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Walsh TJ, Gonzalez C, Roilides E, et al: Fungemia in children infected with the human immunodeficiency virus: New epidemiologic patterns, emerging pathogens, and improved outcome with antifungal therapy. Clin Infect Dis 20:900–906, 1995.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. MacPhail LA, Hilton JF, Dodd CL, Greenspan D: Prophylaxis with nystatin pastilles for HIV-associated oral candidiasis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 12:470–476, 1996.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Graybill JR, Vazquez J, Darouiche RO, et al: Randomized trial of itraconazole oral solution for oropharyngeal candidiasis in HIV/AIDS patients, Am J Med 104:33–39, 1998.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Nandwani R, Parnell A, Youle M, et al: Use of terbinafine in HIV-positive subjects: Pilot studies in onychomycosis and oral candidiasis. Br J Dermatol 134(Suppl 46):22–24 (discussion 39), 1996.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Laguna F, Rodriguez-Tudela JL, Martinez-Suarez JV, et al: Patterns of fluconazole susceptibility in isolates from human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with oropharyngeal candidiasis due to Candida albicans. Clin Infect Dis 24:124–130, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Maenza JR, Merz WG, Romagnoli MJ, Keruly JC, Moore RD, Gallant JE: Infection due to fluconazole-resistant Candida in patients with AIDS: Prevalence and microbiology. Clin Infect Dis 24:28–34 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Powderly WG, Finkelstein D, Feinberg J, et al: A randomized trial comparing fluconazole with clotrimazole troches for the prevention of fungal infections in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. NIAID AIDS Clinical Trials Group [see comments], N Engl J Med 332:700–705, 1995.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Schuman P, Capps L, Peng G, et al: Weekly fluconazole for the prevention of mucosal candidiasis in women with HIV infection. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS [see comments]. Ann Intern Med 126:689–696, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Supparatpinyo K, Chiewchanvit S, Hirunsri P, Uthammachai C, Nelson KE, Sirisanthana T: Penicillium marneffei infection in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus [see comments]. Clin Infect Dis 14:871–874, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Diamond RD: The growing problem of mycoses in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Rev Infect Dis 13:480–486, 1991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Wheat LJ, Connolly-Stringfield PA, Baker RL, et al: Disseminated histoplasmosis in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome: Clinical findings, diagnosis and treatment, and review of the literature. Medicine 69:361–374, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Rico MJ, Penneys NS: Cutaneous cryptococcosis resembling molluscum contagiosum in a patient with AIDS. Arch Dermatol 121:901–902, 1985.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Picon L, Vaillant L, Duong T, et al: Cutaneous cryptococcosis resembling molluscum contagiosum: A first manifestation of AIDS. Acta Derm Venereal 69:365–367, 1989.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Cohen PR, Bank DE, Silvers DN, Grossman ME: Cutaneous lesions of disseminated histoplasmosis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients, J Am Acad Dermatol 23:422–428, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Wingard JR, Merz WG, Saral R: Candida tropicalis: A major pathogen in immunocompromised patients. Ann Intern Med 91:539–543, 1979.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Bodey GP, Luna M: Skin lesions associated with disseminated candidiasis. JAMA 229:1466–1468, 1974.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Grossman ME, Silvers DN, Walther RR: Cutaneous manifestations of disseminated candidiasis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2:111–116, 1980.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. File TM Jr, Marina OA, Flowers FP: Necrotic skin lesions associated with disseminated candidiasis. Arch Dermatol 115:214–215, 1979.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Fine JD, Miller JA, Harrist TJ, Haynes HA: Cutaneous lesions in disseminated candidiasis mimicking ecthyma gangrenosum. Am J Med 70:1133–1135, 1981.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Benson PM, Roth RR, Hicks CB: Nodular subcutaneous abscesses caused by Candida tropicalis [letter]. J Am Acad Dermatol 16:623–624, 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Collignon PJ, Sorrell TC: Disseminated candidiasis: Evidence of a distinctive syndrome in heroin abusers. Br Med J 287:861–862, 1983.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Jarowski CI, Fialk MA, Murray HW, et al: Fever, rash, and muscle tenderness. A distinctive clinical presentation of disseminated candidiasis. Arch Intern Med 138:544–546, 1978.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Marcus J, Grossman ME, Yunakov MJ, Rappaport F: Disseminated candidiasis, Candida arthritis, and unilateral skin lesions. J Am Acad Dermatol 26:295–297, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Held JL, Berkowitz RK, Grossman ME: Use of touch preparation for rapid diagnosis of disseminated candidiasis. J Am Acad Dermatol 19:1063–1066, 1988.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Currie BP, Casadevall A: Estimation of the prevalence of cryptococcal infection among patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus in New York City. Clin Infect Dis 19:1029–1033, 1994.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Dromer F, Mathoulin S, Dupont B, Laporte A: Epidemiology of cryptococcosis in France: A 9-year survey (1985–1993). French Cryptococcosis Study Group. Clin Infect Dis 23:82–90, 1996.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Murakawa GJ, Kerschmann R, Berger T: Cutaneous Cryptococcus infection and AIDS. Report of 12 cases and review of the literature. Arch Dermatol 132:545–548, 1996.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Anderson DJ, Schmidt C, Goodman J, Pomeroy C: Cryptococcal disease presenting ascellulitis [see comments]. Clin Infect Dis 14:666–672, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Manfredi R, Mazzoni A, Nanetti A, Mastroianni A, Coronado O, Chiodo F: Morphologic features and clinical significance of skin involvement in patients with AIDS-related cryptococcosis. Acta Derm Venereal 76:72–74, 1996.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Dimino-Emme L, Gurevitch AW: Cutaneous manifestations of disseminated cryptococcosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 32:844–850, 1995.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Hall JC, Brewer JH, Crouch TT, Watson KR: Cryptococcal cellulitis with multiple sites of involvement. J Am Acad Dermatol 17:329–332, 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Goldman M, Pottage JC Jr: Cryptococcal infection of the breast. Clin Infect Dis 21:1166–1169, 1995.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Shuttleworth D, Philpot CM, Knight AG: Cutaneous cryptococcosis: Treatment with oral fluconazole. Br J Dermatol 120:683–687, 1989.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Cusini M, Cagliani P, Grimalt R, Tadini G, Alessi E, Fasan M: Primary cutaneous cryptococcosis in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome [letter]. Arch Dermatol 127:1848–1849, 1991.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Antony SA, Antony SJ: Primary cutaneous Cryptococcus in non-immunocompromised patients. Cutis 56:96–98, 1995.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Hunt SJ, Nagi C, Gross KG, Wong DS, Mathews WC: Primary cutaneous aspergillosis near central venous catheters in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Dermatol 128:1229–1232, 1992.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Allo MD, Miller J, Townsend T, Tan C: Primary cutaneous aspergillosis associated with Hickman intravenous catheters. N Engl J Med 317:1105–1108, 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Arikan S, Uzun O, Cetinkaya Y, Kocagoz S, Akova M, Unal S: Primary cutaneous aspergillosis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: Two cases and review [see comments], Clin Infect Dis 27:641–643, 1998.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Thakur BK, Bernardi DM, Murali MR, McClain SA, Clark RA: Invasive cutaneous aspergillosis complicating immunosuppres-sive therapy for recalcitrant pemphigus vulgaris. J Am Acad Dermatol 38:488–490, 1998.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Pursell KJ, Telzak EE, Armstrong D: Aspergillus species colonization and invasive disease in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 14:141–148, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Oscherwitz SL, Rinaldi MG: Disseminated sporotrichosis in a patient infected with human immunodeficiency virus [letter]. Clin Infect Dis 15:568–569, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Dong JA, Chren MM, Elewski BE: Bonsai tree: Risk factor for disseminated sporotrichosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 33:839–840, 1995.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Heller HM, Fuhrer J: Disseminated sporotrichosis in patients with AIDS: Case report and review of the literature. AIDS 5:1243–1246, 1991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Girmenia C, Iori AP, Boecklin F, et al: Fusarium infections in patients with severe aplastic anemia: Review and implications for management. Haematologica 84:114–118, 1999.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Girmenia C, Arcese W, Micozzi A, Martino P, Bianco P, Morace G: Onychomycosis as a possible origin of disseminated Fusarium solani infection in a patient with severe aplastic anemia [letter]. Clin Infect Dis 14:1167, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. June CH, Beatty PG, Shulman HM, Rinaldi MG: Disseminated Fusarium moniliforme infection after allogeneic marrowtrans-plantation. South Med J 79:513–515, 1986.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Chariyalertsak S, Sirisanthana T, Supparatpinyo K, Praparat-tanapan J, Nelson KE: Case-control study of risk factors for Penicillium marneffei infection in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients in northern Thailand. Clin Infect Dis 24:1080–1086, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Duong TA: Infection due to Penicillium marneffei, an emerging pathogen: Review of 155 reportedcases [see comments], Clin Infect Dis 23:125–130, 1996.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Supparatpinyo K, Khamwan C, Baosoung V, Nelson KE, Sirisanthana T: Disseminated Penicillium marneffei infection in southeast Asia. Lancet 344:110–113, 1994.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Butka BJ, Bennett SR, Johnson AC: Disseminated inoculation blastomycosis in a renal transplant recipient. Am Rev Respir Dis 130:1180–1183, 1984.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Pappas PG: Blastomycosis in the immunocompromised patient. Semin Respir Infect 12:243–251, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Pappas PC, Threlkeld MG, Bedsole GD, Cleveland KO, Gelfand MS, Dismukes WE: Blastomycosis in immunocompromised patients. Medicine 72:311–325, 1993.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Prichard JG, Sorotzkin RA, James RED: Cutaneous manifestations of disseminated coccidioidomycosis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Cutis 39:203–205, 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Vartivarian SE, Coudron PE, Markowitz SM: Disseminated coccidioidomycosis. Unusual manifestations in a cardiac transplantation patient. Am J Med 83:949–952, 1987.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. McKinsey DS, Spiegel RA, Hutwagner L, et al: Prospective study of histoplasmosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: Incidence, risk factors, and pathophysiology. Clin Infect Dis 24:1195–1203, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Carme B, Ngaporo AI, Ngolet A, Ibara JR, Ebikili B: Disseminated African histoplasmosis in a Congolese patient with AIDS. J Med Vet Mycol 30:245–248, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Bellman B, Berman B, Sasken H, Kirsner RS: Cutaneous disseminated histoplasmosis in AIDS patients in south Florida. Int J Dermatol 36:599–603, 1997.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Eisig S, Boguslaw B, Cooperband B, Phelan J: Oral manifestations of disseminated histoplasmosis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: Report of two cases and review of the literature. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 49:310–313, 1991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Kaplan LJ, Daum RS, Smaron M, McCarthy CA: Severe measles in immunocompromised patients. JAMA 267:1237–1241, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Krasinski K, Borkowsky W: Measles and measles immunity in children infected with human immunodeficiency virus. JAMA 261: 2512–2516, 1989.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Markowitz LE, Chandler FW, Roldan EO, et al: Fatal measles pneumonia without rash in a child with AIDS. J Infect Dis 158: 480–483, 1988.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. McNutt NS, Kindel S, Lugo J: Cutaneous manifestations of measles in AIDS. J Cutan Pathol 19:315–324, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Horn TD, Hood AF: Cytomegalovirus is predictably present in perineal ulcers from immunosuppressed patients. Arch Dermatol 126:642–644, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Stewart JA, Reef SE, Pellett PE, Corey L, Whitley RJ: Herpesvirus infections in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis 21(Suppl 1):S114–S120, 1995.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Keiser P, Jockus J, Horton H, Smith JW: Prednisone therapy is not associated with increased risk of herpetic infections in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis 23:201–202, 1996.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Masessa JM, Grossman ME, Knobler EH, Bank DE: Kaposi’s varicelliform eruption in cutaneous T cell lymphoma. J Am Acad Dermatol 21:133–135, 1989.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Siegal FP, Lopez C, Hammer GS, et al: Severe acquired immunodeficiency in male homosexuals, manifested by chronic perianal ulcerative herpes simplex lesions. N Engl J Med 305:1439–1444, 1981.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Hook EWd, Cannon RO, Nahmias AJ, et al: Herpes simplex virus infection as a risk factor for human immunodeficiency virus infection in heterosexuals [see comments]. J Infect Dis 165:251–255, 1992.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Fleming DT, McQuillan GM, Johnson RE, et al: Herpes simplex virus type 2 in the United States, 1976 to 1994 [see comments]. N Engl J Med 337:1105–1111, 1997.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Mole L, Ripich S, Margolis D, Holodniy M: The impact of active herpes simplex virus infection on human immunodeficiency virus load. J Infect Dis 176:766–770, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Torres RA, Neaton JD, Wentworth DN, et al: Acyclovir use and survival among human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with CD4 cell counts of 500/mm3. The Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS (CPCRA). Clin Infect Dis 26:85–90, 1998.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Pannuti CS, Cristina M, Finck DS, et al: Asymptomatic perianal shedding of herpes simplex virus in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Dermatol 133:180–183, 1997.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Burgoyne M, Burke, W: Atypical herpes simplex infection in patients with acute myelogenous leukemia recovering from chemotherapy. J Am Acad Dermatol 20:1125–1126, 1989.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Kalb RE, Grossman ME: Chronic perianal herpes simplex in immunocompromised hosts. Am J Med 80:486–490, 1986.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Toback AC, Grossman ME: Chronic intraoral herpes simplex infection in renal transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 18:966–969, 1986.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Grossman ME, Stevens AW, Cohen PR: Brief report: Herpetic geometric glossitis [see comments]. N Engl J Med 329:1859–1860, 1993.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Zuretti AR, Schwartz IS: Gangrenous herpetic whitlow in a human immunodeficiency virus-positive patient. Am J Clin Pathol 93: 828–830, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Weaver G, Kostman JR: Inoculation herpes simplex virus infections in patients with AIDS: Unusual appearance and location of lesions. Clin Infect Dis 22:141–142, 1996.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Norris SA, Kessler HA, Fife KH: Severe, progressive herpetic whitlow caused by an acyclovir-resistant virus in a patient with AIDS [letter]. J Infect Dis 157:209–210, 1988.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Genereau T, Lortholary O, Bouchaud O, et al: Herpes simplex esophagitis in patients with AIDS: Report of 34 cases. The Cooperative Study Group on Herpetic Esophagitis in HIV Infection. Clin Infect Dis 22:926–931, 1996.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Stone WJ, Scowden EB, Spannuth CL, Lowry SP, Alford RH: Atypical herpesvirus hominis type 2 infection in uremic patients receiving immunosuppressive therapy. Am J Med 63:511–516, 1977.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Nahass GT, Mandel MJ, Cook S, Fan W, Leonardi CL: Detection of herpes simplex and varicella-zoster infection from cutaneous lesions in different clinical stages with the polymerase chain reaction. J Am Acad Dermatol 32:730–733, 1995.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Schacker T, Hu HL, Koelle DM, et al: Famciclovir for the suppression of symptomatic and asymptomatic herpes simplex virus reactivation in HIV-infected persons. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 128:21–28, 1998.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Lalezari J, Schacker T, Feinberg J, et al: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of cidofovir gel for the treatment of acyclovir-unresponsive mucocutaneous herpes simplex virus infection in patients with AIDS. J Infect Dis 176:892–898, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Gilden DH, Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK, LaGuardia JJ, Mahalingam R, Cohrs RJ: Neurologic complications of the reactivation of varicella-zoster virus. N Engl J Med 342:635–645, 2000.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. McNamara MP, LaCrosse S, Piering WF, Rytel MW: Exogenous reinfection with varicella-zoster virus [letter]. N Engl J Med 317: 511, 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Rusthoven JJ, Ahlgren P, Elhakim T, et al: Varicella-zoster infection in adult cancer patients. A population study. Arch Intern Med 148:1561–1566, 1988.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Kelley R, Mancao M, Lee F, Sawyer M, Nahmias A, Nesheim S: Varicella in children with perinatally acquired human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Pediatr 124:271–273, 1994.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Baran J Jr, Khatib R: Recrudescence of initial cutaneous lesions after crusting of chickenpox in an adult with advanced AIDS suggests prolonged local viral persistence. Clin Infect Dis 24: 741–742, 1997.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Leibovitz E, Cooper D, Giurgiutiu D, et al: Varicella-zoster virus infection in Romanian children infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Pediatrics 92:838–842, 1993.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Gershon AA, Mervish N, LaRussa P, et al: Varicella-zoster virus infection in children with underlying human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis 176:1496–1500, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. von Seidlein L, Gillette SG, Bryson Y, et al: Frequent recurrence and persistence of varicella-zoster virus infections in children infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Pediatr 128:52–57, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  190. Gulick RM, Heath-Chiozzi M, Crumpacker CS: Varicella-zoster virus disease in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection [comment]. Arch Dermatol 126:1086–1088, 1990.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Colebunders R, Mann JM, Francis H, et al: Herpes zoster in African patients: A clinical predictor of human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis 157:314–318, 1988.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Friedman-Kien AE, Lafleur FL, Gendler E, et al: Herpes zoster: A possible early clinical sign for development of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in high-risk individuals. J Am Acad Dermatol 14:1023–1028, 1986.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Melbye M, Grossman RJ, Goedert JJ, Eyster ME, Biggar RJ: Risk of AIDS after herpes zoster. Lancet 1:728–731, 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Dolin R, Reichman RC, Mazur MH, Whitley RJ: NIH conference. Herpes zoster-varicella infections in immunosuppressed patients. Ann Intern Med 89:375–388, 1978.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Feld R, Evans WK, DeBoer G: Herpes zoster in patients with small-cell carcinoma of the lung receiving combined modality treatment. Ann Intern Med 93:282–283, 1980.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Hoppenjans WB, Bibler MR, Orme RL, Solinger AM: Prolonged cutaneous herpes zoster in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome [see comments]. Arch Dermatol 126:1048–1050, 1990.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Gilson IH, Barnett JH, Conant MA, Laskin OL, Williams J, Jones PG: Disseminated ecthymatous herpes varicella-zoster virus infection in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol 20:637–642, 1989.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Leibovitz E, Kaul A, Rigaud M, Bebenroth D, Krasinski K, Borkowsky W: Chronic varicella zoster in a child infected with human immunodeficiency virus: Case report and review of the literature. Cutis 49:27–31, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. LeBoit PE, Limova M, Yen TS, Palefsky JM, White CR Jr, Berger TG: Chronic verrucous varicella-zoster virus infection in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Histologic and molecular biologic findings. Am J Dermatopathol 14: 1–7, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Alliegro MB, Dorrucci M, Pezzotti P, et al: Herpes zoster and progression to AIDS in a cohort of individuals who seroconverted to human immunodeficiency virus. Italian HIV Seroconversion Study. Clin Infect Dis 23:990–995, 1996.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Tyndall MW, Nasio J, Agoki E, et al: Herpes zoster as the initial presentation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in Kenya. Clin Infect Dis 21:1035–1037, 1995.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Bayu S, Alemayehu W: Clinical profile of herpes zoster ophthalmicus in Ethiopians. Clin Infect Dis 24:1256–1260, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. McNulty A, Li Y, Radtke U, et al: Herpes zoster and the stage and prognosis of HIV-1 infection. Genitourin Med 73:467–470, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Glesby MJ, Moore RD, Chaisson RE: Herpes zoster in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection treated with zidovudine. Zidovudine Epidemiology Study Group. J Infect Dis 168:1264–1268, 1993.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  205. Buchbinder SP, Katz MH, Hessol NA, et al: Herpes zoster and human immunodeficiency virus infection [see comments], J Infect Dis 166:1153–1156, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Veenstra J, Krol A, van Praag RM, et al: Herpes zoster, immunological deterioration and disease progression in HIV-1 infection. AIDS 9:1153–1158, 1995.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Tsao H, Tahan SR, Johnson RA: Chronic varicella zoster infection mimicking a basal cell carcinoma in an AIDS patient. J Am Acad Dermatol 36:831–833, 1997.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  208. Nikkels AF, Rentier B, Pierard GE: Chronic varicella-zoster virus skin lesions in patients with human immunodeficiency virus are related to decreased expression of gE and gB. J Infect Dis 176: 261–264, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. Batisse D, Eliaszewicz M, Zazoun L, Baudrimont M, Pialoux G, Dupont B: Acute retinal necrosis in the course of AIDS: Study of 26 cases [see comments]. AIDS 10:55–60, 1996.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. Galindez OA, Sabates NR, Whitacre MM, Sabates FN: Rapidly progressive outer retinal necrosis caused by varicella zoster virus in a patient infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis 22:149–151, 1996.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  211. Manian FA, Kindred M, Fulling KH: Chronic varicella-zoster virus myelitis without cutaneous eruption in a patient with AIDS: Report of a fatal case. Clin Infect Dis 21:986–988, 1995.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  212. Lionnet F, Pulik M, Genet P, et al: Myelitis due to varicella-zoster virus in two patients with AIDS: Successful treatment with acyclovir. Clin Infect Dis 22:138–140, 1996.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  213. Kestelyn P, Stevens AM, Bakkers E, Rouvroy D, Van de Perre P: Severe herpes zoster ophthalmicus in young African adults: A marker for HTLV-III seropositivity. Br J Ophthalmol 71:806–809, 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. Shuler JD, Engstrom RE Jr., Holland GN: External ocular disease and anterior segment disorders associated with AIDS. Int Ophthalmol Clin 29:98–104, 1989.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  215. Seiff SR, Margolis T, Graham SH, O’Donnell JJ: Use of intravenous acyclovir for treatment of herpes zoster ophthalmicus in patients at risk for AIDS. Ann Ophthalmol 20:480–482, 1988.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  216. Rostad SW, Olson K, McDougall J, Shaw CM, Alvord EC Jr: Transsynaptic spread of varicella zoster virus through the visual system: A mechanism of viral dissemination in the central nervous system [published erratum appears in Hum Pathol 20:820, 1989]. Hum Pathol 20:174–179, 1989.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  217. Ryder JW, Croen K, Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK, Ostrove JM, Straus SE, Cohn DL: Progressive encephalitis three months after resolution of cutaneous zoster in a patient with AIDS. Ann Neural 19:182–188, 1986.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  218. Cohen PR, Grossman ME: Clinical features of human immunodeficiency virus-associated disseminated herpes zoster virus infection—A review of the literature. Clin Exp Dermatol 14:273–276, 1989.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. Disler RS, Dover JS: Chronic localized herpes zoster in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome [letter] [see comments]. Arch Dermatol 126:1105–1106, 1990.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  220. Janier M, Hillion B, Baccard M, et al: Chronic varicella zoster infection in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome [letter]. J Am Acad Dermatol 18:584–585, 1988.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  221. Langenberg A, Yen TS, LeBoit PE: Granulomatous vasculitis occurring after cutaneous herpes zoster despite absence of viral genome. J Am Acad Dermatol 24:429–433, 1991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  222. Safrin S, Berger TG, Gilson I, et al: Foscarnet therapy in five patients with AIDS and acyclovir-resistant varicella-zoster virus infection. Ann Intern Med 115:19–21, 1991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  223. Safrin S, Assaykeen T, Follansbee S, Mills J: Foscarnet therapy for acyclovir-resistant mucocutaneous herpes simplex virus infection in 26 AIDS patients: Preliminary data. J Infect Dis 161:1078–1084, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. Greenspan D, Greenspan JS, Hearst NG, et al: Relation of oral hairy leukoplakia to infection with the human immunodeficiency virus and the risk of developing AIDS. J Infect Dis 155:475–481, 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  225. Greenspan D, Greenspan JS: Oral manifestations of HIV infection. Dermatol Clin 9:517–522, 1991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  226. Webster-Cyriaque J, Edwards RH, Quinlivan EB, Patton L, Wohl D, Raab-Traub N: Epstein-Barr virus and human herpesvirus 8 prevalence in human immunodeficiency virus-associated oral mucosal lesions. J Infect Dis 175:1324–1332, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  227. Triantos D, Porter SR, Scully C, Teo CG: Oral hairy leukoplakia: Clinicopathologic features, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and clinical significance. Clin Infect Dis 25:1392–1396, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  228. Shiboski CH, Hilton JF, Neuhaus JM, Canchola A, Greenspan D: Human immunodeficiency virus-related oral manifestations and gender. A longitudinal analysis. The University of California, San Francisco Oral AIDS Center Epidemiology Collaborative Group. Arch Intern Med 156:2249–2254, 1996.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  229. Shiboski CH, Hilton JF, Greenspan D, et al: HIV-related oral manifestations in two cohorts of women in San Francisco. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 7:964–971, 1994.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  230. Greenspan D, Greenspan JS, Overby G, et al: Risk factors for rapid progression from hairy leukoplakia to AIDS: A nested case-control study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 4:652–658, 1991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  231. Husak R, Garbe C, Orfanos CE: Oral hairy leukoplakia in 71 HIV-seropositive patients: Clinical symptoms, relation to immunologic status, and prognostic significance [see comments], J Am Acad Dermatol 35:928–934, 1996.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  232. Alessi E, Berti E, Cusini M, et al: Oral hairy leukoplakia [see comments]. J Am Acad Dermatol 22:79–86, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  233. McGregor JM, Yu CC, Lu QL, Cotter FE, Levison DA, MacDonald DM: Posttransplant cutaneous lymphoma. J AmAcad Dermatol 29:549–554, 1993.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Gallant JE, Moore RD, Richman DD, Keruly J, Chaisson RE: Incidence and natural history of cytomegalovirus disease in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus disease treated with zidovudine. The Zidovudine Epidemiology Study Group [seecomments]. J Infect Dis 166:1223–1227, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  235. Heinemann MH: Characteristics of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Med 92:12S–16S, 1992.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  236. Pariser RJ: Histologically specific skin lesions in disseminated cytomegalovirus infection. J Am Acad Dermatol 9:937–946,1983.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  237. Patterson JW, Broecker AH, Kornstein MJ, Mills AS: Cutaneous cytomegalovirus infection in a liver transplant patient. Diagnosis by in situ DNA hybridization. Am J Dermatopathol 10:524–530, 1988.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  238. Curtis JL, Egbert BM: Cutaneous cytomegalovirus vasculitis: An unusual clinical presentation of a common opportunistic pathogen. Hum Pathol 13:1138–1141, 1982.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  239. Walker JD, Chesney TM: Cytomegalovirus infection of the skin. Am J Dermatopathol 4:263–265, 1982.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  240. Swanson S, Feldman PS: Cytomegalovirus infection initially diagnosed by skin biopsy. Am J Clin Pathol 87:113–116, 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  241. Chang Y, Cesarman E, Pessin MS, et al: Identification of herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in AIDS-associated Kaposi’s sarcoma. Science 266:1865–1869, 1994.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  242. Moore PS, Chang Y: Detection of herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in Kaposi’s sarcoma in patients with and those without HIV infection. N Engl J Med 332:1181–1185, 1995.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  243. Whitby D, Howard MR, Tenant-Flowers M, et al: Detection of KS-associated herpesvirus in peripheral blood of HIV-infected individuals and progression to Kaposi’s sarcoma. Lancet 346: 799–802, 1995.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  244. Moore PS, Kingsley LA, Holmberg SD, et al: Kaposi’s sarcoma associated herpesvirus infection prior to onset of Kaposi’s sarcoma. AIDS 10:175–180, 1996.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  245. Kedes DH, Operskalski E, Busch M, et al: The seroepidemiology of human herpesvirus 8 (Kaposi’s sarcoma associated herpesvirus): Distribution of infection in KS risk groups and evidence for sexual transmission. Nat Med 2:918–924, 1996.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  246. Gao SJ, Kingsley L, Li M, et al: KSHV antibodies among Americans, Italians, and Ugandans with and without Kaposi’s sarcoma. Nat Med 2:925–928, 1996.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  247. Friedman-Kien AE, Saltzman BR: Clinical manifestations of classical, endemic African, and epidemic AIDS-associated Kaposi’s sarcoma. J Am Acad Dermatol 22:1237–1250, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  248. Boudreaux AA, Smith LL, Cosby CD, Bason MM, Tappero JW, Berger TG: Intralesional vinblastine for cutaneous Kaposi’s sarcoma associated with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. A clinical trial to evaluate efficacy and discomfort associated with infection. J Am Acad Dermatol 28:61–65, 1993.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  249. Tappero JW, Berger TG, Kaplan LD, Volberding PA, Kahn JO: Cryotherapy for cutaneous Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS) associated with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS): A phase II trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 4:839–846, 1991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  250. Morfeldt L, Torssander J: Long-term remission of Kaposi’s sarcoma following foscarnet treatment in HIV-infected patients. Scand J Infect Dis 26:749–752, 1994.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  251. Hammoud Z, Parenti DM, Simon GL: Abatement of cutaneous Kaposi’s sarcoma associated with cidofovir treatment [see comments]. Clin Infect Dis 26:1233, 1998.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  252. Weinberg JM, Mysliwiec A, Turiansky GW, Redfield R, James WD: Viral folliculitis. Atypical presentations of herpes simplex, herpes zoster, and molluscum contagiosum [see comments]. Arch Dermatol 133:983–986, 1997.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  253. Myskowski PL: Molluscum contagiosum. New insights, new directions [editorial; comment]. Arch Dermatol 133:1039–1041, 1997.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  254. Pauly CR, Artis WM, Jones HE: Atopic dermatitis, impaired cellular immunity, and molluscum contagiosum. Arch Dermatol 114:391–393, 1978.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  255. Ganpule M, Garretts M: Molluscum contagiosum and sarcoidosis: Report of a case. Br J Dermatol 85:587–589, 1971.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  256. Rosenberg EW, Yusk JW: Molluscum contagiosum. Eruption following treatment with prednisone and methotrexate. Arch Dermatol 101:439–441, 1970.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  257. Redfield RR, James WD, Wright DC, et al: Severe molluscum contagiosum infection in a patient with human T cell lymphotrophic (HTLV-III) disease. J Am Acad Dermatol 13:821–824, 1985.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  258. Cotton DW, Cooper C, Barrett DF, Leppard BJ: Severe atypical molluscum contagiosum infection in an immunocompromised host. Br J Dermatol 116:871–876, 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  259. Koopman RJ, van Merrienboer FC, Vreden SG, Dolmans WM: Molluscum contagiosum; a marker for advanced HIV infection [letter]. Br J Dermatol 126:528–529, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  260. Smith KJ, Skelton HGD, Yeager J, James WD, Wagner KF: Molluscum contagiosum. Ultrastructural evidence for its presence in skin adjacent to clinical lesions in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Military Medical Consortium for Applied Retroviral Research [see comments]. Arch Dermatol 128: 223–227, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  261. Smith KJ, Yeager J, Skelton H: Molluscum contagiosum: Its clinical, histopathologic, and immunohistochemical spectrum. Int J Dermatol 38:664–672, 1999.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  262. Hicks CB, Myers SA, Giner J: Resolution of intractable molluscum contagiosum in a human immunodeficiency virus-infected patient after institution of antiretroviral therapywith ritonavir. Clin Infect Dis 24:1023–1025, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  263. Meadows KP, Tyring SK, Pavia AT, Rallis TM: Resolution of recalcitrant molluscum contagiosum virus lesions in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients treated with cidofovir [see comments]. Arch Dermatol 133:987–990, 1997.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  264. Cohen LM, Tyring SK, Rady P, Callen JP: Human papillomavirus type 11 in multiple squamous cell carcinomas in a patient with subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus. J Am Acad Dermatol 26:840–845, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  265. Viac J, Chardonnet Y, Euvrard S, Chignol MC, Thivolet J: Langerhans cells, inflammation markers and human papillomavirus infections in benign and malignant epithelial tumors from transplant recipients. J Dermatol 19:67–77, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  266. Sun XW, Kuhn L, Ellerbrock TV, Chiasson MA, Bush TJ, Wright TC Jr: Human papillomavirus infection in women infected with the human immunodeficiency virus [see comments]. N Engl J Med 337:1343–1349, 1997.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  267. Sun XW, Ellerbrock TV, Lungu O, Chiasson MA, Bush TJ, Wright TC Jr: Human papillomavirus infection in human immunodeficiency virus-seropositive women. Obstet Gynecol 85:680–686, 1995.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  268. Hillemanns P, Ellerbrock TV, McPhillips S, et al: Prevalence of anal human papillomavirusinfection and anal cytologic abnormalities in HIV-seropositive women. AIDS 10:1641–1647, 1996.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  269. Chiasson MA, Ellerbrock TV, Bush TJ, Sun XW, Wright TC Jr: Increased prevalence of vulvovaginal condyloma and vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia in women infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Obstet Gynecol 89:690–694, 1997.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  270. Hagensee ME, Kiviat N, Critchlow CW, et al: Seroprevalence of human papillomavirus types 6 and 16 capsid antibodies in homosexual men. J Infect Dis 176:625–631, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  271. Palefsky JM, Holly EA, Ralston ML, Jay N: Prevalence and risk factors for human papillomavirus infection of the anal canal in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive and HIV-negative homosexual men. J Infect Dis 177:361–367, 1998.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  272. Kiviat NB, Critchlow CW, Holmes KK, et al: Association of anal dysplasia and human papillomavirus with immunosuppression and HIV infection among homosexual men, AIDS 7:43–49, 1993.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  273. Chopra KF, Tyring SK: The impact of the human immunodeficiency virus on the human papillomavirus epidemic. Arch Dermatol 133:629–633, 1997.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  274. Palefsky JM, Shiboski S, Moss A: Risk factors for anal human papillomavirus infection and anal cytologic abnormalities in HIV-positive and HIV-negative homosexual men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 7:599–606, 1994.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  275. Maiman M, Fruchter RG, Guy L, Cuthill S, Levine P, Serur E: Human immunodeficiency virus infection and invasive cervical carcinoma. Cancer 71:402–406, 1993.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  276. Palefsky JM: Anal human papillomavirus infection and anal cancer in HIV-positive individuals: An emerging problem [editorial]. AIDS 8:283–295, 1994.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  277. Carter PS, de Ruiter A, Whatrup C, et al: Human immunodeficiency virus infection and genital warts as risk factors for anal intraepithelial neoplasia in homosexual men. Br J Surg 82:473–474, 1995.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  278. Fader DJ, Stoler MH, Anderson TF: Isolated extragenital HPV-thirties-group-positive bowenoid papulosis in an AIDS patient. Br J Dermatol 131:577–580, 1994.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  279. Tosti A, La Placa M, Fanti PA, et al: Human papillomavirus type 16-associated periungual squamous cell carcinoma in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome [letter]. Acta Derm Venereal 74:478–479, 1994.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  280. Palefsky JM, Holly EA, Hogeboom CJ, Berry JM, Jay N, Darragh TM: Anal cytology as a screening tool for anal squamous intraepithelial lesions. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 14:415–422, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  281. Critchlow CW, Holmes KK, Wood R, et al: Association of human immunodeficiency virus and anal human papillomavirus infection among homosexual men. Arch Intern Med 152:1673–1676, 1992.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  282. Schrager LK, Friedland GH, Maude D, et al: Cervical and vaginal squamous cell abnormalities in women infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2:570–575, 1989.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  283. Feingold AR, Vermund SH, Burk RD, et al: Cervical cytologic abnormalities and papillomavirus in women infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 3:896–903, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  284. Berger TG, Sawchuk WS, Leonardi C, Langenberg A, Tappero J, Leboit PE: Epidermodysplasia verruciformis-associated papillomavirus infection complicating human immunodeficiency virus disease. Br J Dermatol 124:79–83, 1991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  285. Prose NS, von Knebel-Doeberitz C, Miller S, Milburn PB, Heilman E: Widespread flat warts associated with human papillomavirus type 5: A cutaneous manifestation of human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Am Acad Dermatol 23:978–981, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  286. Laraque D: Severe anogenital warts in a child with HIV infection [letter]. N Engl J Med 320:1220–1221, 1989.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  287. Kiviat N, Rompalo A, Bowden R, et al: Anal human papillomavirus infection among human immunodeficiency virus-seropositive and-seronegative men. J Infect Dis 162:358–361, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  288. Ampel NM, Stout ML, Garewal HS, Davis JR: Persistent rectal ulcer associated with human papillomavirus type 33 in a patient with AIDS: Successful treatment with isotretinoin. Rev Infect Dis 12:1004–1007, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  289. Beck DE, Jaso RG, Zajac RA: Surgical management of anal condylomata in the HIV-positive patient. Dis Colon Rectum 33: 180–183, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  290. Musher DM: Syphilis, neurosyphilis, penicillin, and AIDS. J Infect Dis 163:1201–1206, 1991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  291. Hicks CB: Syphilis and HIV infection. Dermatol Clin 9:493–501, 1991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  292. Tramont EC: Syphilis in the AIDS era [editorial]. N Engl J Med 316:1600–1601, 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  293. Tramont EC: Syphilis in adults: From Christopher Columbus to Sir Alexander Fleming to AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 21:1361–1369, 1995.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  294. Gregory N, Sanchez M, Buchness MR: The spectrum of syphilis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Am Acad Dermatol 22:1061–1067, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  295. Glover RA, Piaquadio DJ, Kern S, Cockerell CJ: An unusual presentation of secondary syphilis in a patient with human immunodeficiency virus infection. A case report and review of the literature. Arch Dermatol 128:530–534, 1992.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  296. Tosca A, Stavropoulos PG, Hatziolou E, et al: Malignant syphilis in HIV-infected patients [see comments]. Int J Dermatol 29:575–578, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  297. Johns DR, Tierney M, Felsenstein D: Alteration in the natural history of neurosyphilis by concurrent infection with the human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med 316:1569–1572, 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  298. Holtom PD, Larsen RA, Leal ME, Leedom JM: Prevalence of neurosyphilis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with latent syphilis [see comments]. Am J Med 93:9–12, 1992.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  299. Recommendations for diagnosing and treating syphilis in HIV-infected patients. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 37:600–602, 607–608, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  300. Rompalo AM, Cannon RO, Quinn TC, Hook EWD: Association of biologic false-positive reactions for syphilis with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis 165:1124–1126, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  301. Hicks CB, Benson PM, Lupton GP, Tramont EC: Seronegative secondary syphilis in a patient infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) with Kaposi sarcoma. A diagnostic dilemma [published erratum appears in Ann Intern Med 107:946, 1987] [see comments]. Ann Intern Med 107:492–495 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  302. Matlow AG, Rachlis AR: Syphilis serology in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with symptomatic neurosyphilis: Case report and review. Rev Infect Dis 12:703–707, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  303. Tikjob G, Russel M, Petersen CS, Gerstoft J, Kobayasi T: Seronegative secondary syphilis in a patient with AIDS: Identification of Treponema pallidum in biopsy specimen. J Am Acad Dermatol 24:506–508, 1991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  304. Fiumara N: Human immunodeficiency virus infection and syphilis. J Am Acad Dermatol 21:141–142, 1989.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  305. Musher DM, Hamill RJ, Baughn RE: Effect of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection on the course of syphilis and on the response to treatment. Ann Intern Med 113:872–881, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  306. Hutchinson CM, Hook EW 3rd, Shepherd M, Verley J, Rompalo AM: Altered clinical presentation of early syphilis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Ann Intern Med 121: 94–100, 1994.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  307. Haas JS, Bolan G, Larsen SA, Clement MJ, Bacchetti P, Moss AR: Sensitivity of treponemal tests for detecting prior treated syphilis during human immunodeficiency virus infection [see comments]. J Infect Dis 162:862–866, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  308. 1998 guidelines for treatment of sexually transmitted diseases. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 47:1–111, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  309. Rolfs RT, Joesoef MR, Hendershot EF, et al: A randomized trial of enhanced therapy for early syphilis in patients with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection. The Syphilis and HIV Study Group [see comments], N Engl J Med 337:307–314, 1997.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  310. Curry A, Turner AJ, Lucas S: Opportunistic protozoan infections in human immunodeficiency virus disease: Review highlighting diagnostic and therapeutic aspects [see comments]. J Clin Pathol 44:182–193, 1991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  311. Litwin MA, Williams CM: Cutaneous Pneumocystis carinii infection mimicking Kaposi sarcoma. Ann Intern Med 117:48–49, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  312. Scowden EB, Schaffner W, Stone WJ: Overwhelming strongyloidiasis: An unappreciated opportunistic infection. Medicine 57:527–544, 1978.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  313. Bank DE, Grossman ME, Kohn SR, Rabinowitz AD: The thumb-print sign: Rapid diagnosis of disseminated strongyloidiasis. J Am Acad Dermatol 23:324–326, 1990.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  314. Kalb RE, Grossman ME: Periumbilical purpura in disseminated strongyloidiasis. JAMA 256:1170–1171, 1986.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  315. Davidson RN: AIDS and leishmaniasis [editorial], Genitourin Med 73:237–239, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  316. Desjeux P: Global control and Leishmania HIV co-infection. Clin Dermatol 17:317–325, 1999.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  317. Da-Cruz AM, Machado ES, Menezes JA, Rutowitsch MS, Coutinho SG: Cellular and humoral immune responses of a patient with American cutaneous leishmaniasis and AIDS. Trans R Soc Trap Med Hyg 86:511–512, 1992.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  318. Dauden E, Penas PF, Rios L, et al: Leishmaniasis presenting as a dermatomyositis-like eruption in AIDS. J Am Acad Dermatol 35: 316–319, 1996.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  319. Rubio FA, Robayna G, Herranz P, et al: Leishmaniasis presenting as a psoriasiform eruption in AIDS [letter], Br J Dermatol 136: 792–794, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  320. Barrio J, Lecona M, Cosin J, Olalquiaga FJ, Hernanz JM, Soto J: Leishmania infection occurring in herpes zoster lesions in an HIV-positive patient [see comments]. Br J Dermatol 134:164–166, 1996.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  321. Caballero-Granado FJ, Lopez-Cortes LF, Borderas F, Regordan C: Digital necrosis due to Leishmania species infection in a patient with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 26:198–199, 1998.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  322. Stolf NA, Higushi L, Bocchi E, et al: Heart transplantation in patients with Chagas’ disease cardiomyopathy. J Heart Transplant 6:307–312, 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  323. Libow LF, Beltrani VP, Silvers DN, Grossman ME: Post-cardiac transplant reactivation of Chagas’ disease diagnosed by skin biopsy. Cutis 48:37–40, 1991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  324. Kirchhoff LV, Gam AA, Gilliam FC: American trypanosomiasis (Chagas’ disease) in Central American immigrants. Am J Med 82:915–920, 1987.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  325. Kirchhoff LV: Chagas disease. American trypanosomiasis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 7:487–502, 1993.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  326. Kirchhoff LV: American trypanosomiasis (Chagas’ disease). Gastroenterol Clin North Am 25:517–533, 1996.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  327. Murakawa GJ, McCalmont T, Altman J, et al: Disseminated acanthamebiasis in patients with AIDS. A report of five cases and a review of the literature. Arch Dermatol 131:1291–1296, 1995.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  328. Tan B, Weldon-Linne CM, Rhone DP, Penning CL, Visvesvara GS: Acanthamoeba infection presenting as skin lesions in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Pathol Lab Med 117:1043–1046, 1993.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  329. Helton J, Loveless M, White CR Jr: Cutaneous acanthamoeba infection associated with leukocytoclastic vasculitis in an AIDS patient. Am J Dermatopalhol 15:146–149, 1993.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  330. Chandrasekar PH, Nandi PS, Fairfax MR, Crane LR: Cutaneous infections due to Acanthamoeba in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Intern Med 157:569–572, 1997.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  331. May LP, Sidhu GS, Buchness MR: Diagnosis of Acanthamoeba infection by cutaneous manifestations in a man seropositive to HIV. J Am Acad Dermatol 26:352–355, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  332. Woolrich A, Koestenblatt E, Don P, Szaniawski W: Cutaneous protothecosis and AIDS. J Am Acad Dermatol 31:920–924, 1994.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  333. Goldstein GD, Bhatia P, Kalivas J: Herpetiform protothecosis. Int J Dermatol 25:54–55, 1986.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  334. Wirth FA, Passalacqua JA, Kao G: Disseminated cutaneous protothecosis in an immunocompromised host: A case report and literature review. Cutis 63:185–188, 1999.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  335. Anolik MA, Rudolph RI: Scabies simulating Darier disease in an immunosuppressed host. Arch Dermatol 112:73–74, 1976.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  336. Tibbs CJ, Wilcox DJ: Norwegian scabies and herpes simplex in a patient with chronic lymphatic leukemia and hypogammaglobulinemia [letter]. Br J Dermatol 126:523–524, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  337. Suzumiya J, Sumiyoshi A, Kuroki Y, Inoue S: Crusted (Norwegian) scabies with adult T-cell leukemia. Arch Dermatol 121: 903–904, 1985.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  338. Donabedian H, Khazan U: Norwegian scabies in a patient with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 14:162–164, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  339. Portu JJ, Santaraaria JM, Zubero Z, Almeida-Llamas MV, Aldamiz-Etxebarria San Sebastian M, Gutierrez AR: Atypical scabies in HIV-positive patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 34:915–917, 1996.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  340. Arico M, Noto G, La Rocca E, Pravata G, Bivona A: Localized crusted scabies in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clin Exp Dermatol 17:339–341, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  341. Hulbert TV, Larsen RA: Hyperkeratotic (Norwegian) scabies with gram-negative bacteremia as the initial presentation of AIDS [letter]. Clin Infect Dis 14:1164–1165, 1992.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  342. Glover A, Young L, Goltz AW: Norwegian scabies in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: Report of a case resulting in death from associated sepsis [letter]. J Am Acad Dermatol 16:396–399, 1987.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  343. Meinking TL, Taplin D, Hermida JL, Pardo R, Kerdel FA: The treatment of scabies with ivermectin. N Engl J Med 333:26–30, 1995.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  344. Taplin D, Meinking TL: Treatment of HIV-related scabies with emphasis on the efficacy of ivermectin. Semin Cutan Med Surg 16:235–240, 1997.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  345. Rosenthal D, LeBoit PE, Klumpp L, Berger TG; Human immunodeficiency virus-associated eosinophilic folliculitis. A unique dermatosis associated with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. Arch Dermatol 127:206–209, 1991.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  346. Bachmeyer C, Cordier F, Cazier A, Blum L, Mougeot-Martin M: [Eosinophilic folliculitis associated with AIDS after antiretroviral tri-therapy (letter)]. Presse Med 28:2226, 1999.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Harvard Medical School, Infectious Disease Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, 02115

    Richard Allen Johnson

  2. Department of Dermatology, Beth Israel-Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, 02115

    Richard Allen Johnson

  3. Harvard Medical School Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, 02115

    Arthur Sober

Authors
  1. Richard Allen Johnson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Arthur Sober
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Infectious Disease, Brigham & Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts

    Robert H. Rubin M.D (Associate Director) (Associate Director)

  2. Center for Experimental Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Harvard University-Massachusetts Institute of Technology Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts

    Robert H. Rubin M.D (Associate Director) (Associate Director)

  3. Kuzell Institute for Arthritis and Infectious Diseases Chief of the Division on Infectious Diseases, Pacific California Medical Center, San Francisco, California

    Lowell S. Young M.D. (Director) (Director)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Johnson, R.A., Sober, A. (2002). Mucocutaneous Infections in the Immunocompromised Host. In: Rubin, R.H., Young, L.S., Van Furth, R. (eds) Clinical Approach to Infection in the Compromised Host. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-47527-8_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-47527-8_3

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-306-46693-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-0-306-47527-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation