Rethinking the Three R's in Animal Research pp 103-129 | Cite as
Toward Reasonable Experimental Inquiry
Abstract
Here I construct an integrative view with clear and realistic proposals for the policymaking with respect to the use of animals in research. Replacement comes first, as an inherently ethical principle. Where Replacement is not possible, the use of animals should be carefully managed on the basis of collective decision-making at the level of research communities and funding agencies, not at the level of individual researchers. This proposal addresses opportunity costs via a macroscopic approach to managing research. Collective decision-making enables communities to ensure that we invest our time, money, and effort in the most optimal way. Detailed suggestions are made on how to organize the macroscopic approach, compatible with the extant research communities and thinking with the concepts of open science and big science.
Keywords
Animal ethics Opportunity cost Collective decision-making Open science Big scienceReferences
- Appenzeller, T. (2017). An unprecedented march for science. Science, 356, 356–357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Balls, M. (2010). The principles of humane experimental technique: Timeless insights and unheeded warnings [Special Issue]. ALTEX, 27, 19–23.Google Scholar
- Bennett, A. J., & Ringach, D. L. (2016). Animal research in neuroscience: A duty to engage. Neuron, 92, 653–657.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Brosnan, S. F., & De Waal, F. B. (2003). Monkeys reject unequal pay. Nature, 425, 297–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Buckheit, J. B., & Donoho, D. L. (1995). WaveLab and reproducible research. In A. Antoniades & G. Oppenheim (Eds.), Lecture Notes in Statistics 103. Wavelets and Statistics (pp. 55–81). New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Chambers, C. D., Feredoes, E., Muthukumaraswamy, S. D., & Etchells, P. J. (2014). Instead of “playing the game” it is time to change the rules: Registered reports at AIMS Neuroscience and beyond. AIMS Neuroscience, 1, 4–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Churchland, P. S. (2011). Braintrust: What Neuroscience Tells Us About Morality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Corning, P. (2011). The Fair Society: The Science of Human Nature and the Pursuit of Social Justice. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Cornwall, W. (2017). Revamp animal research rules, report urges. Science, 358, 434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Editorial. (2015). Inhumane treatment of nonhuman primate researchers. Nature Neuroscience, 18, 787.Google Scholar
- Editorial. (2018). Economics A–Z terms beginning with O. The Economist. Available at: http://www.economist.com/economics-a-to-z/o#node-21529616. Accessed 13 Feb 2018.
- Edwards, M. A., & Roy, S. (2017). Academic research in the 21st century: Maintaining scientific integrity in a climate of perverse incentives and hypercompetition. Environmental Engineering Science, 34, 51–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Farah, M. J. (Ed.). (2010). Neuroethics: An Introduction with Readings. Cambridge: The MIT Press.Google Scholar
- Frederick, S., Novemsky, N., Wang, J., Dhar, R., & Nowlis, S. (2009). Opportunity cost neglect. Journal of Consumer Research, 36, 553–561.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gandal, M. J., Haney, J. R., Parikshak, N. N., Leppa, V., Ramaswami, G., Hartl, C., et al. (2018). Shared molecular neuropathology across major psychiatric disorders parallels polygenic overlap. Science, 359, 693–697.Google Scholar
- Gazzaniga, M. S. (2005). The Ethical Brain: The Science of Our Moral Dilemmas. New York: Dana Press.Google Scholar
- Goya, F. (1799/1969). Los Caprichos. New York: Dover Publications.Google Scholar
- Greely, H. T., Ramos, K. M., & Grady, C. (2016). Neuroethics in the age of brain projects. Neuron, 92, 637–641.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Grillner, S. (2014). Megascience efforts and the brain. Neuron, 82, 1209–1211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Holder, T. (2014). Standing up for science: The antivivisection movement and how to stand up to it. EMBO Reports, 15(6), 625–630.Google Scholar
- Holy Bible. (2011). New International Version. Colorado Springs: Biblica. Available at: https://www.biblegateway.com/versions/New-International-Version-NIV-Bible.
- Hursthouse, R. (2011). Virtue ethics and the treatment of animals. In T. L. Beauchamp & R. G. Frey (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Animal Ethics (pp. 119–143). New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium. (2001). Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome. Nature, 409, 860–921.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- John, L. K., Loewenstein, G., & Prelec, D. (2012). Measuring the prevalence of questionable research practices with incentives for truth telling. Psychological Science, 23, 524–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kirby, M. D. (1986). Bioethical decisions and opportunity costs. Journal of Contemporary Health Law and Policy, 2, 7–21.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Koch, C., & Jones, A. (2016). Big science, team science, and open science for neuroscience. Neuron, 92, 612–616.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- LaFollette, H., & Shanks, N. (1996). Brute Science: Dilemmas of Animal Experimentation. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
- Legrenzi, P., Girotto, V., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1993). Focusing in reasoning and decision making. Cognition, 49, 37–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Martinson, B. C., Anderson, M. S., & De Vries, R. (2005). Scientists behaving badly. Nature, 435, 737–738.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- McKiernan, E. C., Bourne, P. E., Brown, C. T., Buck, S., Kenall, A., Lin, J., et al. (2016). How open science helps researchers succeed. eLife, 5, e16800.Google Scholar
- Merali, Z. (2010). The large human collider. Nature, 464, 482–484.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Musil, R. (1937). Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften. Hamburg: Rowohlt Verlag. Available at: https://archive.org/stream/MusilDerMannOhneEigenschaften.
- NCC Staff. (2013, August 28). 10 famous quotes from Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Constitution Daily. Available at: https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/10-famous-quotes-from-dr-martin-luther-king-jr.
- Northcraft, G. B., & Neale, M. A. (1986). Opportunity costs and the framing of resource allocation decisions. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 37, 348–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Nosek, B. A., Alter, G., Banks, G. C., Borsboom, D., Bowman, S. D., Breckler, S. J., et al. (2015). Promoting an open science culture. Science, 348, 1422–1425.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Nosek, B. A., Spies, J. R., & Motyl, M. (2012). Scientific utopia: II. Restructuring incentives and practices to promote truth over publishability. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 615–631.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Open Science Collaboration. (2015). Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science, 349, 943.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Rose, N. (2014). The human brain project: Social and ethical challenges. Neuron, 82, 1212–1215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Phillips, K. A., Bales, K. L., Capitanio, J. P., Conley, A., Czoty, P. W., ‘t Hart, B. A., et al. (2014). Why primate models matter. American Journal of Primatology, 76, 801–824.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Roelfsema, P. R., & Treue, S. (2014). Basic neuroscience research with nonhuman primates: A small but indispensable component of biomedical research. Neuron, 82, 1200–1204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Russell, W. M. S., & Burch, R. L. (1959/1992). The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique. Wheathampstead: Universities Federation for Animal Welfare. Available at ALTWEB: http://altweb.jhsph.edu/pubs/books/humane_exp/foreword.
- Schelling, T. C. (1971). On the ecology of micromotives. The Public Interest, 25, 61–98.Google Scholar
- Singer, P. (1981/2011). The Expanding Circle: Ethics, Evolution, and Moral Progress. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
- Singer, P. (1998). Ethics in Action: Henry Spira and the Animal Rights Movement. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar
- Smaldino, P. E., & McElreath, R. (2016). The natural selection of bad science. Royal Society Open Science, 3, 160384.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Spiller, S. A. (2011). Opportunity cost consideration. Journal of Consumer Research, 38, 595–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Than, K. (2011, May 26). Densest matter created in big-bang machine. National Geographic News. Available at: https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/05/110524-densest-matter-created-lhc-alice-big-bang-space-science.
- The International Brain Laboratory. (2017). An international laboratory for systems and computational neuroscience. Neuron, 96, 1213–1218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Von Wieser, F. (1914/1927). Social Economics (A. Ford Hinrichs, Trans.). New York: Adelphi.Google Scholar
- Zhang, N., Ji, L.-J., & Li, Y. (2017). Cultural differences in opportunity cost consideration. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 45.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar