Advertisement

Venous Intracranial Interventions

  • Srikanth R. Boddu
  • Athos PatsalidesEmail author
Chapter
First Online:

Abstract

Intracranial venous intervention is an evolving area of endovascular surgical neuroradiology with combined diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. Since Higgins et al. first reported the venous sinus stenting in 2002, there have been only a few prospective and retrospective trials published in the literature. Over the past decade, there has been a rapid increase in the diagnostic and interventional procedures of the intracranial venous system, providing better understanding of the pathophysiology and effective alternate therapeutic options for challenging pathology such as refractory idiopathic intracranial hypertension and intractable pulsatile tinnitus. The anatomic and physiological roles of intravascular ultrasound and venous manometry, respectively, have significantly improved our understanding in the challenging diagnosis of venous sinus stenosis.

In this chapter, we briefly discuss the fundamental cerebral venous anatomy and intracranial venous interventions under specific diagnostic and therapeutic categories.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. 1.
    Sutton D, Stevens J, Stevens J. Vascular imaging in neuroradiology. In: Textbook of radiology and imaging, vol. 2. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 2003. p. 1682–7.Google Scholar
  2. 2.
    Einhäupl KM, Masuhr F. Cerebral venous and sinus thrombosis - an update. Eur J Neurol. 1994;1(2):109–26.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-1331.1994.tb00059.x.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  3. 3.
    Meder JF, Chiras J, Roland J, Guinet P, Bracard S, Bargy F. Venous territories of the brain. J Neuroradiol J Neuroradiol. 1994;21(2):118–33.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    Wolf BS, Newman CM, Schlesinger B. The diagnostic value of the deep cerebral veins in cerebral angiography. Radiology. 1955;64(2):161–7.  https://doi.org/10.1148/64.2.161.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Wolf BS, Huang YP. The subependymal veins of the lateral ventricles. Am J Roentgenol Radium Therapy, Nucl Med. 1964;91:406–26.Google Scholar
  6. 6.
    Ayanzen RH, Bird CR, Keller PJ, McCully FJ, Theobald MR, Heiserman JE. Cerebral MR venography: normal anatomy and potential diagnostic pitfalls. Am J Neuroradiol. 2000;21(1):74–8.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Higgins JNP, Owler BK, Cousins C, Pickard JD. Venous sinus stenting for refractory benign intracranial hypertension. Lancet Lond Engl. 2002;359(9302):228–30.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07440-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Agid R, Shelef I, Scott JN, Farb RI. Imaging of the intracranial venous system. Neurologist. 2008;14(1):12–22.  https://doi.org/10.1097/NRL.0b013e318157f791.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    Ahmed RM, Wilkinson M, Parker GD, et al. Transverse sinus stenting for idiopathic intracranial hypertension: a review of 52 patients and of model predictions. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2011;32(8):1408–14.  https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A2575.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Farb RI, Vanek I, Scott JN, et al. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension: the prevalence and morphology of sinovenous stenosis. Neurology. 2003;60(9):1418–24.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Sismanis A. Pulsatile tinnitus. A 15-year experience. Am J Otol. 1998;19(4):472–7.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Park Y-H, Kwon H-J. Awake embolization of sigmoid sinus diverticulum causing pulsatile tinnitus: simultaneous confirmative diagnosis and treatment. Interv Neuroradiol. 2011;17(3):376–9.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Paramasivam S, Furtado S, Shigamatsu T, Smouha E. Endovascular management of sigmoid sinus diverticulum. Interv Neurol. 2016;5(1–2):76–80.  https://doi.org/10.1159/000444507.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Higgins JNP, Cousins C, Owler BK, Sarkies N, Pickard JD. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension: 12 cases treated by venous sinus stenting. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003;74(12):1662–6.  https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.74.12.1662.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    King JO, Mitchell PJ, Thomson KR, Tress BM. Cerebral venography and manometry in idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Neurology. 1995;45(12):2224–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Bolz KD, Myhre HO, Angelsen BA, Nordby A. Intravascular ultrasonography. Normal and pathologic findings in the great veins. Acta Radiol Stockh Swed 1987. 1993;34(4):329–34.Google Scholar
  17. 17.
    Topol EJ, Nissen SE. Our preoccupation with coronary luminology. The dissociation between clinical and angiographic findings in ischemic heart disease. Circulation. 1995;92(8):2333–42.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Neglén P, Raju S. Intravascular ultrasound scan evaluation of the obstructed vein. J Vasc Surg. 2002;35(4):694–700.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Farb RI. The dural venous sinuses: normal intraluminal architecture defined on contrast-enhanced MR venography. Neuroradiology. 2007;49(9):727–32.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00234-007-0250-0.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Lirng J-F. Magnetic resonance venography of intracranial venous diseases. J Chin Med Assoc. 2010;73(6):289–91.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S1726-4901(10)70063-0.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Dolic K, Marr K, Valnarov V, et al. Intra- and extraluminal structural and functional venous anomalies in multiple sclerosis, as evidenced by 2 noninvasive imaging techniques. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2012;33(1):16–23.  https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A2877.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  22. 22.
    Liang L, Korogi Y, Sugahara T, et al. Normal structures in the intracranial dural sinuses: delineation with 3D contrast-enhanced magnetization prepared rapid acquisition gradient-echo imaging sequence. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2002;23(10):1739–46.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Karmon Y, Zivadinov R, Weinstock-Guttman B, et al. Comparison of intravascular ultrasound with conventional venography for detection of extracranial venous abnormalities indicative of chronic cerebrospinal venous insufficiency. J Vasc Interv Radiol JVIR. 2013;24(10):1487–1498.e1.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvir.2013.06.012.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Scalise F, Farina M, Manfredi M, Auguadro C, Novelli E. Assessment of jugular endovascular malformations in chronic cerebrospinal venous insufficiency: colour-Doppler scanning and catheter venography compared with intravascular ultrasound. Phlebol Venous Forum R Soc Med. 2013;28(8):409–17.  https://doi.org/10.1258/phleb.2012.012079.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Rasheed Q, Dhawale PJ, Anderson J, Hodgson JM. Intracoronary ultrasound-defined plaque composition: computer-aided plaque characterization and correlation with histologic samples obtained during directional coronary atherectomy. Am Heart J. 1995;129(4):631–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Forauer AR, Gemmete JJ, Dasika NL, Cho KJ, Williams DM. Intravascular ultrasound in the diagnosis and treatment of iliac vein compression (May-Thurner) syndrome. J Vasc Interv Radiol JVIR. 2002;13(5):523–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Raff H. Cushing syndrome: update on testing. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am. 2015;44(1):43–50.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecl.2014.10.005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Bansal V, El Asmar N, Selman WR, Arafah BM. Pitfalls in the diagnosis and management of Cushing’s syndrome. Neurosurg Focus. 2015;38(2):E4.  https://doi.org/10.3171/2014.11.FOCUS14704.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Newell-Price J, Trainer P, Besser M, Grossman A. The diagnosis and differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome and pseudo-Cushing’s states. Endocr Rev. 1998;19(5):647–72.  https://doi.org/10.1210/edrv.19.5.0346.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Corrigan DF, Schaaf M, Whaley RA, Czerwinski CL, Earll JM. Selective venous sampling to differentiate ectopic ACTH secretion from pituitary Cushing’s syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1977;296(15):861–2.  https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM197704142961508.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Kakade HR, Kasaliwal R, Jagtap VS, et al. Ectopic ACTH-secreting syndrome: a single-center experience. Endocr Pract Off J Am Coll Endocrinol Am Assoc Clin Endocrinol. 2013;19(6):1007–14.  https://doi.org/10.4158/EP13171.OR.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Nieman LK, Cutler GB, Oldfield EH, Loriaux DL, Chrousos GP. The ovine corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) stimulation test is superior to the human CRH stimulation test for the diagnosis of Cushing’s disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1989;69(1):165–9.  https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem-69-1-165.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Miller DL, Doppman JL. Petrosal sinus sampling: technique and rationale. Radiology. 1991;178(1):37–47.  https://doi.org/10.1148/radiology.178.1.1845785.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Utz A, Biller BMK. The role of bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling in the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 2007;51(8):1329–38.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Shiu PC, Hanafee WN, Wilson GH, Rand RW. Cavernous sinus venography. Am J Roentgenol Radium Therapy, Nucl Med. 1968;104(1):57–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Doppman JL, Chang R, Oldfield EH, Chrousos G, Stratakis CA, Nieman LK. The hypoplastic inferior petrosal sinus: a potential source of false-negative results in petrosal sampling for Cushing’s disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84(2):533–40.  https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.84.2.5475.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Mamelak AN, Dowd CF, Tyrrell JB, McDonald JF, Wilson CB. Venous angiography is needed to interpret inferior petrosal sinus and cavernous sinus sampling data for lateralizing adrenocorticotropin-secreting adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81(2):475–81.  https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636253.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    Bonelli FS, Huston J, Carpenter PC, Erickson D, Young WF, Meyer FB. Adrenocorticotropic hormone-dependent Cushing’s syndrome: sensitivity and specificity of inferior petrosal sinus sampling. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2000;21(4):690–6.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Sharma ST, Nieman LK. Is prolactin measurement of value during inferior petrosal sinus sampling in patients with adrenocorticotropic hormone-dependent Cushing’s syndrome? J Endocrinol Investig. 2013;36(11):1112–6.  https://doi.org/10.3275/9067.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Wind JJ, Lonser RR, Nieman LK, DeVroom HL, Chang R, Oldfield EH. The lateralization accuracy of inferior petrosal sinus sampling in 501 patients with Cushing’s disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98(6):2285–93.  https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2012-3943.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Quincke H. Meningitis serosa. Samml Klin Vortr Leipz 189367 Inn Med 23655. 1893.Google Scholar
  42. 42.
    Corbett JJ, Thompson HS. The rational management of idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Arch Neurol. 1989;46(10):1049–51.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  43. 43.
    Satti SR, Leishangthem L, Chaudry MI. Meta-analysis of CSF diversion procedures and dural venous sinus stenting in the setting of medically refractory idiopathic intracranial hypertension. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2015;36(10):1899–904.  https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A4377.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Albuquerque FC, Gross BA, Levitt MR. Time to re-assess the treatment of idiopathic intracranial hypertension. J NeuroInterventional Surg. 2016;8(6):549–50.  https://doi.org/10.1136/neurintsurg-2016-012460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Krishnan A, Mattox DE, Fountain AJ, Hudgins PA. CT Arteriography and venography in pulsatile tinnitus: preliminary results. Am J Neuroradiol. 2006;27(8):1635–8.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Sismanis A. Pulsatile tinnitus. Otolaryngol Clin N Am. 2003;36(2):389–402, viii.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. 47.
    Shargorodsky J, Curhan GC, Farwell WR. Prevalence and characteristics of tinnitus among US adults. Am J Med. 2010;123(8):711–8.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2010.02.015.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Liyanage SH, Singh A, Savundra P, Kalan A. Pulsatile tinnitus. J Laryngol Otol. 2006;120(2):93–7.  https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022215105001714.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Davis A, Refaie A. Epidemiology of tinnitus. In: Tyler R, editor. Tinnitus handbook. San Diego: Singular.Google Scholar
  50. 50.
    Henry JA, Dennis KC, Schechter MA. General review of tinnitus: prevalence, mechanisms, effects, and management. J Speech Lang Hear Res JSLHR. 2005;48(5):1204–35.  https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2005/084).CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Ott PM. [Venous tinnitus (author’s transl)]. Laryngol Rhinol Otol (Stuttg). 1977;56(4):339–41.Google Scholar
  52. 52.
    Stern J, Goldenberg M. Jugular bulb diverticula in medial petrous bone. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1980;134(5):959–61.  https://doi.org/10.2214/ajr.134.5.959.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    Kennedy DW, El-Sirsy HH, Nager GT. The jugular bulb in otologic surgery: anatomic, clinical, and surgical considerations. Otolaryngol – Head Neck Surg Off J Am Acad Otolaryngol-Head Neck Surg. 1986;94(1):6–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Lambert PR, Cantrell RW. Objective tinnitus in association with an abnormal posterior condylar emissary vein. Am J Otol. 1986;7(3):204–7.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    Russell EJ, De Michaelis BJ, Wiet R, Meyer J. Objective pulse-synchronous “essential” tinnitus due to narrowing of the transverse dural venous sinus. Int Tinnitus J. 1995;1(2):127–37.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  56. 56.
    Mathis JM, Mattox D, Malloy P, Zoarski G. Endovascular treatment of pulsatile tinnitus caused by dural sinus stenosis. Skull Base Surg. 1997;7(3):145–50.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    McCombe A, Baguley D, Coles R, et al. Guidelines for the grading of tinnitus severity: the results of a working group commissioned by the British Association of Otolaryngologists, Head and Neck Surgeons, 1999. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci. 2001;26(5):388–93.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Shweel M, Hamdy B. Diagnostic utility of magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance angiography in the radiological evaluation of pulsatile tinnitus. Am J Otolaryngol. 2013;34(6):710–7.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjoto.2013.08.001.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Boddu S, Dinkin M, Suurna M, Hannsgen K, Bui X, Patsalides A. Resolution of pulsatile tinnitus after venous sinus stenting in patients with idiopathic intracranial hypertension. PLoS One. 2016;11(10):e0164466.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0164466.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Bousser M-G. Cerebral venous thrombosis. Stroke. 1999;30(3):481–3.  https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.30.3.481.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Canhão P, Ferro JM, Lindgren AG, Bousser M-G, Stam J, Barinagarrementeria F. Causes and predictors of death in cerebral venous thrombosis. Stroke. 2005;36(8):1720–5.  https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.0000173152.84438.1c.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Towbin A. The syndrome of latent cerebral venous thrombosis: its frequency and relation to age and congestive heart failure. Stroke. 1973;4(3):419–30.  https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.4.3.419.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Saposnik G, Barinagarrementeria F, Brown RD, et al. Diagnosis and management of cerebral venous thrombosis. Stroke. 2011;42(4):1158–92.  https://doi.org/10.1161/STR.0b013e31820a8364.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Stam J. Cerebral venous and sinus thrombosis: incidence and causes. Adv Neurol. 2003;92:225–32.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Ferro JM. Causes, predictors of death, and antithrombotic treatment in cerebral venous thrombosis. Clin Adv Hematol Oncol HO. 2006;4(10):732–3.Google Scholar
  66. 66.
    Meckel S, Reisinger C, Bremerich J, et al. Cerebral venous thrombosis: diagnostic accuracy of combined, dynamic and static, contrast-enhanced 4D MR venography. Am J Neuroradiol. 2010;31(3):527–35.  https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A1869.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Rizzo L, Crasto SG, Rudà R, et al. Cerebral venous thrombosis: role of CT, MRI and MRA in the emergency setting. Radiol Med (Torino). 2010;115(2):313–25.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11547-010-0493-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Hsu LC, Lirng JF, Fuh JL, Wang SJ, Shyu HY, Liu HC. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in deep cerebral venous thrombosis. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 1998;100(1):27–30.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Keller E, Flacke S, Urbach H, Schild HH. Diffusion- and perfusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in deep cerebral venous thrombosis. Stroke. 1999;30(5):1144–6.  https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.30.5.1144.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Lafitte F, Boukobza M, Guichard JP, et al. MRI and MRA for diagnosis and follow-up of cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT). Clin Radiol. 1997;52(9):672–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Tsai FY, Nguyen B, Lin W-C, et al. Endovascular procedures for cerebrovenous disorders. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2008;101:83–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  72. 72.
    Tsai FY, Kostanian V, Rivera M, Lee K-W, Chen CC, Nguyen TH. Cerebral venous congestion as indication for thrombolytic treatment. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 2007;30(4):675–87.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00270-007-9046-1.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    de Bruijn SFTM, Stam J. Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of anticoagulant treatment with low-molecular-weight heparin for cerebral sinus thrombosis. Stroke. 1999;30(3):484–8.  https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.30.3.484.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    de Bruijn SFTM, Budde M, Teunisse S, de Haan RJ, Stam J, Group for the CVSTS. Long-term outcome of cognition and functional health after cerebral venous sinus thrombosis. Neurology. 2000;54(8):1687–9.  https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.54.8.1687.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Daif A, Awada A, Al-Rajeh S, et al. Cerebral venous thrombosis in adults. Stroke. 1995;26(7):1193–5.  https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.26.7.1193.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Preter M, Tzourio C, Ameri A, Bousser M-G. Long-term prognosis in cerebral venous thrombosis. Stroke. 1996;27(2):243–6.  https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.27.2.243.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Maqueda VM, Thijs V. Risk of thromboembolism after cerebral venous thrombosis. Eur J Neurol. 2006;13(3):302–5.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-1331.2006.01211.x.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Breteau G, Mounier-Vehier F, Godefroy O, et al. Cerebral venous thrombosis 3-year clinical outcome in 55 consecutive patients. J Neurol. 2003;250(1):29–35.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-003-0932-4.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Cakmak S, Derex L, Berruyer M, et al. Cerebral venous thrombosis clinical outcome and systematic screening of prothrombotic factors. Neurology. 2003;60(7):1175–8.  https://doi.org/10.1212/01.WNL.0000055811.05743.10.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Stolz E, Rahimi A, Gerriets T, Kraus J, Kaps M. Cerebral venous thrombosis: an all or nothing disease? Prognostic factors and long-term outcome. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2005;107(2):99–107.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clineuro.2004.06.002.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    Mak W, Mok KY, Tsoi TH, Cheung RT, Ho SL, Chang CM. Cerebral venous thrombosis in Hong Kong. Cerebrovasc Dis Basel Switz. 2001;11(3):282–3.  https://doi.org/10.1159/000047652.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Brucker AB, Vollert-Rogenhofer H, Wagner M, et al. Heparin treatment in acute cerebral sinus venous thrombosis: a retrospective clinical and MR analysis of 42 cases. Cerebrovasc Dis Basel Switz. 1998;8(6):331–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. 83.
    Fixed dose subcutaneous low molecular weight heparins versus adjusted dose unfractionated heparin for venous thromboembolism. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001100.pub2/full. Accessed 4 Mar 2017.
  84. 84.
    Masuhr F, Einhäupl K. Treatment of cerebral venous and sinus thrombosis. Front Neurol Neurosci. 2008;23:132–43.  https://doi.org/10.1159/0000111375.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    Röttger C, Trittmacher S, Gerriets T, Blaes F, Kaps M, Stolz E. Reversible MR imaging abnormalities following cerebral venous thrombosis. Am J Neuroradiol. 2005;26(3):607–13.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Frey JL, Muro GJ, McDougall CG, Dean BL, Jahnke HK. Cerebral venous thrombosis. Stroke. 1999;30(3):489–94.  https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.30.3.489.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Mehraein S, Schmidtke K, Villringer A, Valdueza JM, Masuhr F. Heparin treatment in cerebral sinus and venous thrombosis: patients at risk of fatal outcome. Cerebrovasc Dis Basel Switz. 2003;15(1–2):17–21.  https://doi.org/10.1159/000067117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. 88.
    Canhão P, Falcão F, Ferro JM. Thrombolytics for cerebral sinus thrombosis: a systematic review. Cerebrovasc Dis Basel Switz. 2003;15(3):159–66. 68833. https://doi.org/10.1159/000068833 CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Massoud TF, Hademenos GJ. Transvenous retrograde nidus sclerotherapy under controlled hypotension (TRENSH): a newly proposed treatment for brain arteriovenous malformations – concepts and rationale. Neurosurgery. 1999;45(2):351–63; discussion 363–365.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  90. 90.
    Choudhri O, Ivan ME, Lawton MT. Transvenous approach to intracranial Arteriovenous malformations: challenging the axioms of Arteriovenous malformation therapy? Neurosurgery. 2015;77(4):644–651.; discussion 652.  https://doi.org/10.1227/NEU.0000000000000869.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  91. 91.
    Mendes GAC, Iosif C, Silveira EP, Waihrich E, Saleme S, Mounayer C. Transvenous embolization in pediatric plexiform arteriovenous malformations. Neurosurgery. 2016;78(3):458–65.  https://doi.org/10.1227/NEU.0000000000001057.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Dinkin MJ, Patsalides A. Venous sinus stenting for idiopathic intracranial hypertension: where are we now? Neurol Clin. 2017;35(1):59–81.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ncl.2016.08.006.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Division of Interventional Neuroradiology, Department of Neurological SurgeryWeill Cornell Medical Center/New York Presbyterian HospitalNew YorkUSA

Personalised recommendations

Cite chapter

Buy options