Advertisement

Adaptation, Regulation, Sentience and Brain Control

  • Donald M. Broom
  • Ken G. Johnson
Chapter
First Online:
Part of the Animal Welfare book series (AWNS, volume 19)

Abstract

In this chapter, the central focus is on the mechanisms used by animals to control their interactions with all aspects of their world. In order to understand what is stressful and what situations lead to good or poor welfare, we need to know about the systems with which humans and other species regulate their lives. Research on motivation has long been a major aspect of animal welfare science. Since the brain is the source of control mechanisms its complexity of function is a key issue. Which animals are sentient and when during development do humans and other animals become sentient? What are the roles of the complex mechanisms that we call feelings and emotions? Terms defined in this chapter include: adaptation, homeostasis, sentience, causal factor, motivational state, gain, need, frustration, pain, feelings, emotion and suffering.

Keywords

Adaptation Brain control Motivation Sentience Feelings Emotion 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. Aarts H, Dijksterhuis A, de Vries P (2001) On the psychology of drinking: being thirsty and perceptually ready. Br J Psychol 92:631–642PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  2. Bagley DVM (2005) Fundamentals of veterinary clinical neurology. Blackwell, AmesGoogle Scholar
  3. Bateson P (1991) Assessment of pain in animals. Anim Behav 42:827–839CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Bernardino T, Tatemoto P, Morrone B, Rodrigues PHM, Zanella AJ (2016) Piglets born from sows fed high fibre diets during pregnancy are less aggressive prior to weaning. PLoS One 11(12):e0167363.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167363 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  5. Bligh J (1973) Temperature regulation in mammals and other vertebrates. North-Holland, Amsterdam, p 167Google Scholar
  6. Blokhuis HJ, Veissier I, Miele M, Jones B (2010) The welfare quality project and beyond: safeguarding farm animal well-being. Acta Agric Scand Sect A Anim Sci 60:129–140Google Scholar
  7. Boissy A, Manteuffel G, Jensen MB, Moe RO, Spruijt B, Keeling LJ, Winckler C, Forkman B, Dimitrov I, Langbein J, Bakken M, Veisier I, Aubert A (2007) Assessment of positive emotions in animals to improve their welfare. Physiol Behav 92:375–397PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  8. Bradshaw RH (1998) Consciousness in non-human animals: adopting the precautionary principle. J Conscious Stud 5:108–114Google Scholar
  9. Braithwaite V (2010) Do fish feel pain? Oxford University Press, OxfordGoogle Scholar
  10. Brambell FWR (1965) Report on the technical committee to enquire into the welfare of livestock kept under intensive husbandry conditions. HMSO, LondonGoogle Scholar
  11. Broom DM (1968) Specific habituation by chicks. Nature 217:880–881PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. Broom DM (1981a) Behavioural plasticity in developing animals. In: Garrod DR, Feldman JD (eds) Development in the nervous system. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 361–378Google Scholar
  13. Broom DM (1981b) Biology of behaviour. Cambridge University Press, CambridgeGoogle Scholar
  14. Broom DM (1985) Stress, welfare and the state of equilibrium. In: Wegner RM (ed) Proceedings of the 2nd European symposium of poultry welfare, Celle, Germany. World Poultry Science Association, Beekberge, pp 72–81Google Scholar
  15. Broom DM (1998) Welfare, stress and the evolution of feelings. Adv Study Behav 27:371–403CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Broom DM (2001a) Coping, stress and welfare. In: Broom DM (ed) Coping with challenge: welfare in animals including humans. Dahlem University Press, Berlin, pp 1–9Google Scholar
  17. Broom DM (2001b) The evolution of pain. Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift 70:17–21Google Scholar
  18. Broom DM (2001c) Evolution of pain. In: Soulsby EJL, Morton D (eds) Pain: its nature and management in man and animals, Royal society of medicine international congress and symposium series, vol 246, pp 17–25Google Scholar
  19. Broom DM (2003) The evolution of morality and religion. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 259CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Broom DM (2006a) Adaptation. Berliner und Münchener Tierärztliche Wochenschrift 119:1–6PubMedGoogle Scholar
  21. Broom DM (2006b) The evolution of morality. Appl Anim Behav Sci 100:20–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. Broom DM (2007) Cognitive ability and sentience: which aquatic animals should be protected? Dis Aquat Organ 75:99–108PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Broom DM (2010) Cognitive ability and awareness in domestic animals and decisions about obligations to animals. Appl Anim Behav Sci 126:1–11CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. Broom DM (2014) Sentience and animal welfare. CABI, Wallingford, p 200Google Scholar
  25. Broom DM (2016) Fish brains and behaviour indicate capacity for feeling pain. Anim Sentience 1(3):4. 2016.010 (5 pages)Google Scholar
  26. Broom DM (2017) Cortisol: often not the best indicator of stress and poor welfare. Physiol News 107:30–32Google Scholar
  27. Broom DM, Fraser AF (2015) Domestic animal behaviour and welfare, 5th edn. CABI, Wallingford, p 472CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. Broom DM, Johnson KG (1993) Stress and animal welfare. Springer, Dordrecht. (initially published by Chapman and Hall)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. Broom DM, Zanella AJ (2004) Brain measures which tell us about animal welfare. Anim Welf 13:S41–S45Google Scholar
  30. Burt de Perera T (2004) Fish can encode order in their spatial map. Proc R Soc, Lond B 271:2131–2134CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Cabanac M, Johnson KG (1983) Analysis of a conflict between palatability and cold exposure in rats. Physiol Behav 31:249–253PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  32. Cannon WB (1935) Stresses and strains of homeostasis. Am J Med Sci 189:1–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. Carlstead K (1986) Predictability of feeding: its effect on agonistic behaviour and growth in grower pigs. Appl Anim Behav Sci 16:25–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. Chrousos GP, Kino T (2007) Glucocorticoid action networks and complex psychiatric and/or somatic disorders. Stress 10:213–219PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Clarke KW, Trim CM, Hall LW (2014) Veterinary anaesthesia. Saunders Elsevier, Edinburgh, p 712Google Scholar
  36. Crone C, Hultborn H, Mazières L, Morin C, Nielsen J, Pierrot-Desseilligny E (1990) Sensitivity of monosynaptic test reflexes to facilitation and inhibition as a function of the test reflex size: a study in man and the cat. Exp Brain Res 81:35–45PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. DeGrazia D (1996) Taking animals seriously. Cambridge University Press, CambridgeCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. Dickinson A (1985) Actions and habits: the development of behavioural autonomy. In: Weiskrantz L (ed) Animal intelligence. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp 67–78Google Scholar
  39. Dickinson A, Balleine B (2002) The role of learning in the operation of motivational systems. In: Poshler H, Gallistol R (eds) Stevens handbook of experimental psychology. John Wiley, New York, pp 497–533Google Scholar
  40. Duncan IJH, Wood-Gush DGM (1971) Frustration and aggression in the domestic fowl. Anim Behav 19:500–504PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Duncan IJH, Wood-Gush DGM (1972) Thwarting of feeding behaviour in the domestic fowl. Anim Behav 20:444–451PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. Fazlul Haque AKM, Broom DM (1985) Experiments comparing the use of kites and gas bangers to protect crops from woodpigeon damage. Agric Ecosyst Environ 2:219–228CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. Ferguson MJ, Borgh JA (2004) Liking is for doing: the effects of goal pursuit on automatic evaluation. J Personal Soc Biol 87:557–572CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. Forkman BA (2002) Learning and cognition. In: Jensen P (ed) The ethology of domestic animals. CAB International, Wallingford, pp 51–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. Fox E (2008) Emotion science. Palgrave Macmillan, BasingstokeCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. Gazarini ML, Garcia CRS (2004) The malaria parasite mitochondrion senses cytosolic Ca2+ fluctuations. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 321:138–144.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.06.141 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  47. Hagen K, Broom DM (2004) Emotional reactions to learning in cattle. Appl Anim Behav Sci 85:203–213CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Halliday TR, Sweatman HPA (1976) To breathe or not to breathe: the newt’s problem. Anim Behav 24:551–561CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Hemsworth PH, Coleman GJ (2010) Human–livestock interaction: the stockperson and the productivity and welfare of intensively farmed animals. CABI, WallingfordGoogle Scholar
  50. Henquin J-C (2011) The dual control of insulin secretion by glucose involves triggering and amplifying pathways in β-cells. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 93:S27–S31PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  51. Hinde RA (1970) Animal behaviour: a synthesis of ethology and comparative psychology, 2nd edn. McGraw Hill, New YorkGoogle Scholar
  52. Howard SR, Avarguès-Weber A, Garcia JE, Greentree AD, Dyer AG (2018) Numerical ordering of zero in honey bees. Science 360:1124–1126.  https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aar4975 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  53. Iggo A (1984) Pain in animals. Universities Federation for Animal Welfare, Potters BarGoogle Scholar
  54. Johnson KG, Cabanac M (1982) Homeostatic competition between food intake and temperature regulation in rats. Physiol Behav 28:675–679PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. Johnson KG, Hales JRS (1984) An introductory analysis of competition between thermoregulation and other homeostatic systems. In: Hales JRS (ed) Thermal physiology. Raven Press, New York, pp 295–298Google Scholar
  56. Kavaliers M (1989) Evolutionary aspects of the neuromodulation of nociceptive behaviors. Am Zool 29:1345–1353CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. Kendrick KM, da Costa AP, Leigh AE, Hinton MR, Peirce JW (2001) Sheep don’t forget a face. Nature 414:165–166PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. Keogh RG, Lynch JJ (1982) Early feeding experience and subsequent acceptance of feed by sheep. Proc N Z Soc Anim Prod 42:73–75Google Scholar
  59. Kivlighan KT, DiPietro JA, Costigan KA, Laudenslager ML (2008) Diurnal rhythm of cortisol during late pregnancy: associations with maternal psychological well-being and fetal growth. Psychoneuroendocrinology 33:1225–1235PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. Kohda M, Hotta T, Takeyama T, Awata S, Tanaka H, Asai J-y, Jordan AL (2019) If a fish can pass the mark test, what are the implications for consciousness and self-awareness testing in animals? PLoS Biol 17(2):e3000021.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000021 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  61. Kirkwood JK (2006) The distribution of the capacity for sentience in the animal kingdom. In: Turner J, D’Silva J (eds) Animals, ethics and trade: the challenge of animal sentience. Compassion in World Farming Trust, Petersfield, pp 12–26Google Scholar
  62. Kumsta R, Entringer S, Hellhammer DH, Wüst S (2007) Cortisol and ACTH responses to psychosocial stress are modulated by corticosteroid binding globulin levels. Psychoneuroendocrinology 32:1153–1157.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.08.007 CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  63. Larkin S, McFarland D (1978) The cost of changing from one activity to another. Anim Behav 26:1237–1246CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. LeDoux J (2012) Rethinking the emotional brain. Neuron 73:653–676.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.02.004 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  65. McFarland DJ (1971) Feedback mechanisms in animal behaviour. Academic, LondonGoogle Scholar
  66. Mellor DJ, Beausoleil NJ (2015) Extending the ‘five domains’ model for animal welfare assessment to incorporate positive welfare states. Anim Welf 24:241–253.  https://doi.org/10.7120/09627286.24.3.241 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. Mellor DJ, Patterson-Kane E, Stafford KJ (2009) The sciences of animal welfare. Wiley-Blackwell, OxfordGoogle Scholar
  68. Metz JHM (1975) Time patterns of feeding and rumination in domestic cattle. Mededelingen Landbouwhoogeschule Wageningen 75:1–66Google Scholar
  69. Miller NE (1959) Liberalization of basic S-R concepts: extensions to conflict behaviour, motivation and social learning. In: Koch S (ed) Psychology: a study of a science, vol II. McGraw Hill, New YorkGoogle Scholar
  70. Mormède P, Adanson S, Beerda B, Guémené D, Malmkvist J, Manteca X, Manteuffel G, Prunet P, van Reenen CG, Richard S, Veissier I (2007) Exploration of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function as a tool to evaluate animal welfare. Physiol Behav 92:317–339.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.12.2006.003 CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  71. Odling-Smee L, Braithwaite VA (2003) The role of learning in fish orientation. Fish Fish 4:235–246CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. Overmier JB, Patterson J, Wielkiewicz RM (1980) Environmental contingencies as sources of stress in animals. In: Levine S, Ursin H (eds) Coping and health. Plenum Press, New York, pp 1–38Google Scholar
  73. Panksepp J (1998) Affective neuroscience. Oxford University Press, OxfordGoogle Scholar
  74. Panksepp J (2005) Affective consciousness: core emotional feelings in animals and humans. Conscious Cogn 14:30–80PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  75. Paul ES, Harding EJ, Mendl M (2005) Measuring emotional processes in animals: the utility of a cognitive approach. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 29:469–491PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  76. Raby CR, Clayton NS (2009) Prospective cognition in animals. Behav Process 80:314–324CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. Ralph CR, Tilbrook AJ (2016) The usefulness of measuring glucocorticoids for assessing animal welfare. J Anim Sci 94:457–470.  https://doi.org/10.2527/jas2015-9645 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  78. Rollin BE (1981) Animal rights and human moralit. Prometheus, Buffalo, NYGoogle Scholar
  79. Rolls ET (1999) The brain and emotion. Oxford University Press, OxfordGoogle Scholar
  80. Roy N, Kumar Nagashan R, Ranade S, Tatu U (2012) Heat shock protein 90 from neglected protozoan parasites. Cell Res 1823:707–711.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamcr.2011.12.003 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. Rushen J (1986) Aversion of sheep for handling treatments: paired choice experiments. Appl Anim Behav Sci 16:363–370CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. Rushen J (1990) Use of aversion–learning techniques to measure distress in sheep. Appl Anim Behav Sci 28:3–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. Salwiczek LH, Prétôt L, Demarta L, Proctor D, Essler J, Pinto AI, Wismer S, Stoinski T, Brosnan SF, Bshary R (2012) Adult cleaner wrasse outperform capuchin monkeys, chimpanzees and orang-utans in a complex foraging task derived from cleaner – client reef fish cooperation. PLoS One 7:e49068.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0049068 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  84. Sander D (2013) Models of emotion: the affective neuroscience approach. In: Armony J, Vuilleumier P (eds) The Cambridge handbook of affective neuroscience. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 5–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. Serova LI, Gueorguiev V, Cheng SY, Sabban EL (2008) Adrenocorticotropic hormone elevates gene expression for catecholamine biosynthesis in rat superior cervical ganglia and locus coeruleus by an adrenal independent mechanism. Neuroscience 153:1380–1389PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. Shah JY, Gardner WL (eds) (2008) Handbook of motivation science. The Guildford Press, New YorkGoogle Scholar
  87. Sibly R, McFarland D (1974) A state–space approach to motivation. In: McFarland DJ (ed) Motivational control systems analysis. Academic, LondonGoogle Scholar
  88. Sneddon LU, Elwood RW, Adamo SA, Leach MC (2014) Defining and assessing animal pain. Anim Behav 97:201–212CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. Sokolov EM (1960) Neuronal models and the orienting reflex. In: Brazier MA (ed) The central nervous system and behavior. Macy Foundation, New YorkGoogle Scholar
  90. Swaney W, Kendal J, Capon H, Brown C, Laland KN (2001) Familiarity facilitates social learning of foraging behaviour in the guppy. Anim Behav 62:591–598CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  91. Thorpe WH (1965) The assessment of pain and distress in animals. Appendix III in Report of the technical committee to enquire into the welfare of animals kept under intensive husbandry conditions, F.W.R. Brambell (chairman). H.M.S.O, LondonGoogle Scholar
  92. Tilbrook AJ (2007) Neuropeptides, stress-related. In: Fink G (ed) Encyclopedia of stress. Academic, Oxford, pp 903–908CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. Toates F (2002) Physiology, motivation and the organization of behaviour. In: Jensen P (ed) Ethology of domestic animals – an introduction. CAB International, WallingfordGoogle Scholar
  94. Tolkamp BJ, Howie JA, Bley TA, Kyriazakis I (2012) Prandial correlations and the structure of feeding behaviour. Appl Anim Behav Sci 137:53–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. Turner AI, Keating C, Tilbrook AJ (2012) Sex differences and the role of sex steroids in sympatho-adrenal medullary system the hyporthalamo-pituitary adrenal axis responses to stress. In: Kahn SM (ed) Sex steroids. Tech. Publishing, Rijeka, pp 115–136Google Scholar
  96. van Stegeren AH, Wolf OT, Everaerd W, Rombouts SART (2007) Interaction of endogenous cortisol and noradrenaline in the human amygdala. Prog Brain Res 167:263–268.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6123(07)67020-4 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. Vince MA (1966) Artificial acceleration of hatching in quail embryos. Anim Behav 14:389–394PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  98. Wall PD (1992) Defining “pain in animals.”. In: Short CE, van Poznak A (eds) Animal pain. Churchill Livingstone, New York, pp 63–79Google Scholar
  99. Weiss JM (1971) Effects of coping behaviour in different warning signal conditions on stress pathology in rats. J Comp Physiol Psychol 77:1–13PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  100. Wiepkema PR (1985) Abnormal behaviour in farm animals: ethological implications. Neth J Zool 35:279–289CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. Wiepkema PR (1987) Behavioural aspects of stress. In: Wiepkema PR, van Adrichem PWM (eds) Biology of stress in farm animals: an integrative approach. Current topics in veterinary medicine and animal science, vol 42. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, pp 113–183CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. Wood-Gush DGM (1988) The relevance of the knowledge of free ranging domesticated animals for animal husbandry. In: van Putten G, Unshelm J, Zeeb K (eds) Proceedings of the international congress of applied ethology in farm animals, Skara, Sweden. KTBL, DarmstadtGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Authors and Affiliations

  • Donald M. Broom
    • 1
  • Ken G. Johnson
    • 2
  1. 1.Department of Veterinary Medicine and St Catharine’s CollegeUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
  2. 2.School of Veterinary StudiesMurdoch UniversityPerthAustralia

Personalised recommendations

Cite chapter

Buy options