Herpes Zoster

  • Kenneth Schmader
Chapter

Abstract

Herpes zoster is a neurocutaneous disease caused by the reactivation of varicella-zoster virus (VZV) from a clinically latent state in dorsal sensory or cranial ganglia. VZV reactivation preferentially affects elderly persons and usually results in dermatomal pain and a vesicular skin eruption. Zoster has been recognized since ancient times but only recently have large numbers of persons experienced the disease, owing to population aging and increasing numbers of immunosuppressed hosts. Although a scourge for the patient, zoster is a remarkable phenomenon for clinical observers. Dr. Hope-Simpson said it best when lecturing at the Royal College of Physicians in England, “Herpes zoster is fascinating because it arrives unpredictably, is readily diagnosed—a rare pleasure for most of us—and difficult to explain.”1

Keywords

Herpes Zoster Postherpetic Neuralgia Varicella Vaccine Oral Acyclovir Acute Herpes Zoster 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. 1.
    Hope-Simpson RE. The nature of herpes zoster: a longterm study and new hypothesis. Proc R Soc Med Lond. 1965; 58: 9–20.Google Scholar
  2. 2.
    Weller TH. Varicella and Herpes Zoster. Changing concepts of the natural history, control, and importance of a not-so-benign virus. N Engl J Med. 1983; 309: 1434–1440.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. 3.
    Ragozzino MW, Melton LF, Kurland LT. Population-based study of herpes zoster and its sequelae. Medicine. 1982; 61: 310–316.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    McGregor RM. Herpes zoster, chicken pox and cancer in general practice. Br Med J. 1957; 1: 84–87.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Brown GR. Herpes zoster: correlation with age, sex, distribution, neuralgia, and associated disorders. South Med J. 1976; 69: 576–578.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Cooper M. The epidemiology of herpes zoster. Eye. 1987; 1: 413–421.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Glynn C, Crockford G, Gavaghan D, et al. Epidemiology of shingles. J R Soc Med. 1990; 83: 617–619.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Schmader KE, George LK, Hamilton JD. Racial differences in the occurrence of herpes zoster. J Infect Dis. 1995; 171: 701–704.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    Dolin R, Reichman RC, Mazur MH, et al. Herpes zoster-varicella infections in immunosuppressed patients. Ann Intern Med. 1978; 89: 375–388.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Arvin AM, Pollard RB, Rasmussen LE, et al. Cellular and humoral immunity in the pathogenesis of recurrent herpes viral infections in patients with lymphoma. J Clin Invest. 1980; 68: 869–878.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Locksley RM, Flournoy N, Sullivan KM, et al. Infection with varicella-zoster virus after marrow transplantation. J Infect Dis. 1985; 152: 1172–1181.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Miller AE. Selective decline in cellular immune response to varicella-zoster in the elderly. Neurology. 1980; 30: 582–587.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Rusthoven JJ, Ahlgren P, Elhakim T, et al. Varicella-zoster infection in adult cancer patients. Arch Intern Med. 1988; 148: 1561–1566.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Schimpff SS, Serpick A, Stoler B, et al. Varicella-zoster infection in patients with cancer. Ann Intern Med. 1972; 76: 241–254.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Buchbinder SP, Katz MH, Hessol NA, et al. Herpes zoster and human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis. 1992; 166: 1153–1156.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Friedman-Lien AE, Lafleur FL, Gendler E, et al. Herpes zoster: a possible early clinical sign for development of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in high-risk individuals. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1986; 14: 1023–1028.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Colebunders R, Mann JM, Franci H, et al. Herpes zoster in African patients: a clinical predictor of human immunodeficiency virus infections. J Infect Dis. 1988; 157: 314–318.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Panda S, Sarkar S, Mandai BK, et al. Epidemic of herpes zoster following HIV epidemic in Manipur, India. J Infet. 1994; 28: 167–173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Ragozzino MW, Melton LI, Kurland LT, et al. Risk of cancer after herpes zoster: a population-based study. N Engl J Med. 1982; 307: 393–397.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Schmader KE, Studenski S, MacMillan J, et al. Are stressful life events risk factors for herpes zoster? J Am Geriatr Soc. 1990; 38: 1188–1195.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Oxman MN, Alani R. Varicella and herpes zoster. In: Fitzpatrick TB, et al., eds. Dermatology in General Medicine. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1993: 2543–2572.Google Scholar
  22. 22.
    Schmader KE, George LK, Newton B, Hamilton JD. The accuracy of self-reports of herpes zoster. J Clin Epidemiol. 1994; in press.Google Scholar
  23. 23.
    Straus SE, Ostrove JE, Inchauspe G, et al. Varicella-zoster virus infections: biology, natural history, treatment and prevention. Ann Intern Med. 1988; 108: 221–237.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Straus SE. Shingles: sorrows, salves, and solutions. JAMA. 1993; 269: 1836–1839.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Arvin AM, Koropchak CM, Wittek AE. Immunologic evidence of reinfection with varicella-zoster virus. J Infect Dis. 1983; 148: 200–205.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Gershon AA, Steinberg SP, Gelb L. Clinical reinfection with varicella-zoster irus. J Infect Dis. 1984; 149: 137–142.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Junker AK, Angus E, Thomas EE. Recurrent varicella-zoster virus infections in apparently immunocompetent children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1991; 10: 569–575.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Garner JS, Simmons BP. CDC Guideline for Isolation Precautions in Hospitals. HHS Publication No. (CDC) 838314. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control; 1983.Google Scholar
  29. 29.
    Garner JS, Simmons BP. CDC guideline for isolation precautions in hospitals. Am J Infect Control. 1984; 12: 103–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Pritchard VG. Infection control measures to block transmission: isolation and beyond. In: Smith PW, ed. Infection Control in Long-Term Care Facilities. 2nd ed. Albany, NY: Delmar; 1994: 227–251.Google Scholar
  31. 31.
    Sawyer MH, Chamberlin CJ, Wu YN, et al. Detection of varicella-zoster virus DNA in air samples from hospital rooms. J Infect Dis. 1994; 169: 91–94.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Weller TH. Varicella-herpes zoster virus. In: Evans AS, ed. Viral Infections of Humans, Epidemiology and Control. 3rd ed. New York: Plenum; 1989: 659–683.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Davison AJ, Scott JE. The complete DNA sequence of varicella-zoster virus. J Gen Virol. 1986; 67: 1759–1816.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Straus SE, Owens J, Ruyechan WT. Molecular cloning and physical mapping of varicella-zoster virus DNA. Proc Nall Acad Sci USA. 1982; 79: 993–997.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Ostrove JM. Molecular biology of varicella-zoster virus. Adv Virus Res. 1990; 38: 45–98.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Gelb LD. Varicella-zoster virus: molecular biology. In: Roizman B, Whitley RJ, Lopez C, eds. The Human Herpesviruses. New York: Raven Press; 1993: 257–281.Google Scholar
  37. 37.
    Grose C. Glycoproteins of varicella-zoster virus and their herpes simplex homologs. Rev Infect Dis. 1991; 13 (suppl 11): S960–5963.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    Forghani B, DuPuis KW, Schmidt NJ. Epitopes functional in neutralization of varicella-zoster virus. J Clin Microbiol. 1990; 28: 2500–2506.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Whitley RJ, Gnann JW. Acyclovir: a decade later. N Engl J Med. 1992; 327: 782–789.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Gilden DH, Vafai A, Shtram Y, et al. Varicella-zoster virus DNA in human sensory ganglia. Nature. 1983; 306: 478–480.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Hyman RW, Ecker JR, Tenser RB. Varicella-zoster virus RNA in human trigeminal ganglia. Lancet. 1983; 2: 814–816.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Mahalingham R, Wellish M, William W, et al. Latent varicella-zoster viral DNA in human trigeminal and throracic ganglia. N Engl J Med. 1990; 323: 627–631.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. 43.
    Gilden DH, Rozenman Y, Murray R, et al. Detection of varicella-zoster virus nucleic acid in neurons of normal human thoracic ganglia. Ann Neurol. 1987; 22: 377–380.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Croen KD, Ostrove JM, Dragovic LJ, et al. Patterns of gene expression and sites of latency in human nerve ganglia are different for varicella-zoster and herpes simplex viruses. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1988; 85: 9773–9777.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Croen KD, Straus SE. Varicella-zoster virus latency. Annu Rev Microbiol. 1991; 45: 265–282.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Miller AE. Selective decline in cellular immune response to varicella-zoster in the elderly. Neurology. 1980; 30: 582–587.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. 47.
    Berger R, Forest G, Just M. Decrease of the lymphoproliferative response to varicella-zoster antigen in the aged. Infect Immun. 1981; 32: 24–27.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Burke BL, Steele RW, Beard OW, et al. Immune responses to varicella-zoster in the aged. Arch Intern Med. 1982; 142: 291–293.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Hayward AR, Herberger M. Lymphocyte responses to varicella-zoster virus in the elderly. J Clin Immunol. 1987; 7: 174–178.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. 50.
    Hayward AR, Levin M, Wolf W, et al. Varicella-zoster virus-specific immunity after herpes zoster. J Infect Dis. 1991; 163: 873–875.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Head H, Campbell AW. The pathology of herpes zoster and its bearing on sensory localization. Brain. 1900; 23: 353–523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. 52.
    Esiri MM, Tomlinson AH. Herpes zoster: demonstration of virus in trigeminal nerve and ganglion by immunofluorescence and electron microscopy. J Neurol Sci. 1972; 49: 35–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    Muller SA, Winkelmann RK. Cutaneous nerve changes in zoster. J Invest Dermatol. 1969; 52: 71–77.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Burgoon CF, Burgoon JS, Baldridge GD. The natural history of herpes zoster. JAMA. 1957; 164: 265–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    Juel-Jensen BE, MacCallum FO. Herpes Simplex, Varicella, and Zoster. Philadelphia: Lippincott; 1972.Google Scholar
  56. 56.
    Rogers RS, Tindall JP. Geriatric herpes zoster. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1971; 19: 495–504.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    deMorgas JM, Kierland RR. The outcome of patients with herpes zoster. Arch Dermatol. 1957; 75: 193–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Wood MJ, Ogan PK, McKendrick MW, et al. Efficacy of oral acyclovir treatment of acute herpes zoster. Am J Med. 1988; 85 (suppl 2A): 79–83.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    LeBoit PE, Limova M, Benedict Yen TS, et al. Chronic verrucous varicella-zoster virus infection in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)-histologic and molecular biologic findings. Am J Dermatopathol. 1992; 14: 1–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Hoppenjans WB, Bibler MR, Orme RL, et al. Prolonged cutaneous herpes zoster in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Dermatol. 1990; 126: 1048–1051.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Gilden DH, Dueland AN, Cohrs R, et al. Preherpetic neuralgia. Neurology. 1991; 41: 1215–1218.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Lewis GW. Zoster sine herpete. Br Med J. 1958; 2: 418–421.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Easton HG. Zoster sine herpete causing trigeminal neuralgia. Lancet. 1970; 2: 1065–1066.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Gelb LD. Varicella-zoster virus: clinical aspects. In: Roizman B, Whitley RJ, Lopez C, eds. The Human Herpesviruses. New York: Raven Press; 1993: 281–309.Google Scholar
  65. 65.
    Gilden DH, Dueland AN, Devlin ME. Varicella-zoster virus reactivation without rash. J Infect Dis. 1992; 166 (suppl 1): 230–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Mayo DR, Booss J. Varicella-zoster associated neurologic disease without skin lesions. Arch Neurol. 1989; 46: 313–315.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Dueland AN, Devlin M, Martin JR, et al. Fatal varicella-zoster virus meningoradiculitis without skin involvement. Ann Neurol. 1991; 29: 569–572.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Heller HM, Carnevale NT, Steigbigel RT. Varicella zoster virus transverse myelitis without cutaneous rash. Am J Med. 1990; 68: 550–551.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Hope-Simpson RE. Postherpetic neuralgia. J R Coll Gen Pract. 1975; 25: 571–575.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Dworkin RH. Portenoy RK. Proposed classification of herpes zoster pain (letter). Lancet. 1994; 343: 16–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Dworkin RH, Hartstein G, Rosner HL, et al. A high-risk method for studying psychosocial antecedents of chronic pain: the prospective investigation of herpes zoster. J Abnormal Psychol. 1992; 101: 200–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. 72.
    Nurmikko T, Wells C, Bowsher D. Pain and allodynia in postherpetic neuralgia: role of somatic and sympathetic nervous systems. Acta Neurol Scand. 1991; 84: 146–152.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    Huff JC, Bean B, Balfour HH, et al. Therapy of herpes zoster with oral acyclovir. Am J Med. 1988; 85 (suppl 2A): 84–89.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    Schmader KE, Studenski S. Are current therapies useful for the prevention of postherpetic neuralgia? A critical analysis of the literature. J Gen Intern Med. 1989; 4: 83–89.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Watson CPN, Watt VR, Chipman M, et al. The prognosis with postherpetic neuralgia. Pain. 1991; 46: 195–199.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Bennett GJ. Hypotheses on the pathogenesis of herpes zoster associated pain. Ann Neurol. 1994; 35 (suppl): 53–842.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Watson CPN, Deck JH, Morshead C, et al. Post-herpetic neuralgia: further post-mortem studies of cases with and without pain. Pain. 1991; 44: 105–117.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Noordenbos W. Pain: Problems Pertaining to the Transmission of Nerve Impulses Which Give Rise to Pain. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1959: 68–80.Google Scholar
  79. 79.
    Bhala BB, Ramamoorthy C, Bowsher D, et al. Shingles and post-herpetic neuralgia. Clin J Pain. 1988; 4: 169–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Rowbotham MC, Fields HL. Post-herpetic neuralgia: the relation of pain complaint, sensory disturbance, and skin temperature. Pain. 1989; 39: 129–144.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    Bowsher D. Sensory change in postherpetic neuralgia. In: Watson CPN, ed. Herpes Zoster and Postherpetic Neuralgia. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1993: 97–106.Google Scholar
  82. 82.
    Nurmikko T, Bowsher D. Somatosensory findings in postherpetic neuralgia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1990; 53: 135–141.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. 83.
    Harding, SP, Lipton JR, Wells JCD. Natural history of herpes zoster ophthalmicus, predictors of postherpetic neuralgia and ocular involvement. Br J Ophthalmol. 1986; 71: 353–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. 84.
    Liesgang TJ. Diagnosis and therapy of herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ophthalmology. 1991; 98: 1216–1229.Google Scholar
  85. 85.
    Womack LW, Liesegang TJ. Complications of herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Arch Ophthalmol. 1983; 101: 42–45.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Culbertson WW, Blumenkranz MS, Pepose JS, et al. Varicella zoster virus is a cause of the acute retinal necrosis syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1986; 93: 559–569.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Soushi S, Ozawa H, Matsuhashi M, et al. Demonstration of varicella zoster virus antigens in the vitreous aspirates of patients with acute retinal necrosis syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1988; 95: 1394–1398.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  88. 88.
    Thomas JE, Howard FM. Segmental zoster paresis-a disease profile. Neurology. 1972; 22: 459–466.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Brostoff J. Diaphragmatic paralysis after herpes zoster. Br Med J. 1966; 2: 1571–1572.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. 90.
    Jellinek EH, Tulloch WS. Herpes zoster with dysfunction of bladder and anus. Lancet. 1976; 2: 1219–1222.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  91. 91.
    Adour KK. Diagnosis and management of facial paralysis. N Engl J Med. 1982; 307: 348–351.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Gupta SK, Helal, BH, Keily P. The prognosis in zoster paralysis. J Bone Joint Surg. 1969; 51: 593–603.Google Scholar
  93. 93.
    Adour KK. Otological complications of herpes zoster. Ann Neurol. 1994; 35: 62–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. 94.
    Jemsek J, Greenberg L, Taber D, et al. Herpes zoster-associated enchephalitis: clinicopathologic report of 12 cases and review of the literature. Medicine. 1983; 62: 81–97.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Bourdette DN, Rosenberg NL, Yatsu FM. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus and delayed ipsilateral cerebral infarction. Neurology. 1983; 33: 1428–1432.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. 96.
    Eidelberg D, Sotrel A, Horoupian DS, et al. Thrombotic cerebral vasculopathy associated with herpes zoster. Ann Neurol. 1986; 19: 7–14.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. 97.
    Straus SE. Clinical and biological differences between recurrent herpes simplex virus and varicella-zoster virus infections. DAMA. 1989; 262: 3455–3458.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  98. 98.
    Kalman CM, Laskin OL. Herpes zoster and zosteriform herpes simplex virus infections in immunocompetent adults. Am J Med. 1986; 81: 775–778.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. 99.
    Drew WL, Mintz L. Rapid diagnosis of varicella-zoster virus infection by direct immunofluorescence. Am J Clin Pathol. 1980; 73: 699–701.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  100. 100.
    Rawlinson WD, Dwyer DI, Gibbons VL, et al. Rapid diagnosis of varicella-zoster virus infection with a monoclonal antibody based direct immunofluorescence technique. J Virol Methods. 1989; 23: 13–18.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. 101.
    Weller TH. Varicella-zoster virus. In: Lennette EH, Schmidt NJ, eds. Diagnostic Procedures for Viral, Rickettsial, and Chlamydial Infections. 5th ed. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association; 1979: 375–398.Google Scholar
  102. 102.
    Gershon AA. Varicella-zoster virus. In: Balows A, et al., eds. Manual of Clinical Microbiology. 5th ed. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology; 1991: 838.Google Scholar
  103. 103.
    Schirm J, Meulenberg JJ, Pastoor GW, et al. Rapid detection of varicella-zoster virus in clinical specimens using monoclonal antibodies on shell vials and smears. J Med Virol. 1989; 28: 1–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. 104.
    Nahass GT, Goldstein BA, Shu WY, et al. Comparison of Tzanck smear, viral culture, and DNA diagnostic methods in detection of herpes simplex and varicella-zoster infection. JAMA. 1992; 268: 2541–2544.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. 105.
    Devlin ME, Gilden DH, Mahalingam R, et al. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells of the elderly contain varicella-zoster virus DNA. J Infect Dis. 1992; 165: 619–622.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  106. 106.
    Puchhammer-Stockl E, Popow-Kraupp T, Heinz FX, et al. Detection of varicella-zoster virus DNA by polymerase chain reaction in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients suffering from neurological complications associated with chicken pox or herpes zoster. J Clin Microbiol. 1991; 29: 1513–1516.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  107. 107.
    Tamura T, Yoshida M, Tezuka T. Detection of varicella-zoster virus DNA in conjunctivas of patients with herpes zoster. Ophthalmologica. 1994; 208: 41–43.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  108. 108.
    Dlugosch D, Eis-Hubinger AM, Kleim JP, et al. Diagnosis of acute and latent varicella-zoster virus infections using the polymerase chain reaction. J Med Virol. 1991; 35: 136–141.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  109. 109.
    Kwok S, Higuchi R. Avoiding false positives with PCR. Nature. 1989; 339: 237–238.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  110. 110.
    Whitley RJ, Gnann JW. Acyclovir: a decade later. N Engl J Med. 1992; 327: 782–789.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  111. 111.
    Vere-Hodge RA. Famciclovir and penciclovir: the mode of action of famciclovir including its conversion to penciclovir. Antiviral Chem Chemother. 1993; 4: 67–84.Google Scholar
  112. 112.
    Tyring S, Barbarash RA, Nahlik JE, et al. and the Collaborative Famiciclovir Herpes Zoster Study Group. Famciclovir for the treatment of acute herpes zoster: Effects on acute disease and postherpetic neuralgia. A randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1995; 123: 89–96.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  113. 113.
    McKendrick MW, McGill JI, White JE, et al. Oral acyclovir in acute herpes zoster. Br Med J. 1986; 293: 1529–1532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  114. 114.
    Morton P, Thomson AN. Oral acyclovir in the treatment of acute herpes zoster in general practice. NZ Med J. 1989; 102: 93–95.Google Scholar
  115. 115.
    Crooks RJ, Jones DA, Fiddian AP. Zoster-associated chronic pain: an overview of clinical trials with acyclovir. Scand J Infect Dis. 1991; 78: 62–68.Google Scholar
  116. 116.
    Harding SP, Porter SM. Oral acyclovir in herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Curr Eye Res. 1991; 10: 177–182.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  117. 117.
    Cobo LM, Foulks GN, Liesegang T, et al. Oral acyclovir in the treatment of acute herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ophthalmology. 1986; 93: 763–770.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  118. 118.
    McGill J, Chapman C. A comparison of topical acyclovir with steroids in the treatment of herpes zoster keratouveitis. Br J Ophthalmol. 1983; 67: 746–750.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  119. 119.
    Marsh RJ, Cooper M. Ophthalmic herpes zoster. Eye. 1993; 7: 350–370.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  120. 120.
    Harding SP. Management of ophthalmic zoster. J Med Virol. 1993; 40 (suppl 1): 97–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  121. 121.
    Balfour HH, Bean B, Laskin OL, et al. Acyclovir halts progression of herpes zoster in immunocompromised patients. N Engl J Med. 1983; 308: 1448–1453.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  122. 122.
    Linnemann CC, Biron KK, Hoppenjans WG, et al. Emergence of acyclovir-resistant varicella-zoster virus in an AIDS patient on prolonged acyclovir therapy. AIDS. 1990; 4: 577–579.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  123. 123.
    Safrin S, Berger TG, Gilson I, et al. Foscarnet therapy in five patients with AIDS and acyclovir-resistant varicella zoster virus infection. Ann Intern Med. 1991; 115: 19–25.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  124. 124.
    Jacobson MA, Berger TG, Fikrig S, et al. Acyclovir resistant varicella-zoster virus infection after chronic oral acyclovir therapy in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Ann Intern Med. 1990; 112: 187–191.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  125. 125.
    Degreef H, and the Famiclovir in Herpes Zoster Clinical Study Group. Famciclovir, a new oral antiherpes drug: results of the first controlled clinical study demonstrating its efficacy and safety in the treatment of uncomplicated herpes zoster in immunocompetent patients. Int J Antimicrobial Agents. 1994; 4: 241–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  126. 126.
    Jacobson MA. Valaciclovir (BW 256 U87), the L-valyl ester of acyclovir. J Med Virol. 1993; 40 (suppl. 1): 150–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  127. 127.
    Beutner KR, Friedman DJ, Forszpaniak C, Andersen PL, Wood MJ. Valaciclovir compared with acyclovir for improved therapy for herpes zoster in immunocompetent adults. Antimicrobial Agents Chemotherapy. 1995; 39: 1546–1553.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  128. 128.
    Gnann JW. BV-araU: preclinical studies and potential applications. In: Mills J, Corey L, eds. Antiviral Chemotherapy: New Directions for Clinical Application and Research. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PTR Prentice-Hall; 1993: 105–116.Google Scholar
  129. 129.
    Gnann JW. New antivirals with activity against varicella-zoster virus. Ann Neurol. 1994; 35: S69–72.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  130. 130.
    Eaglstein WH, Katz R, Brown JA. The effects of early corticosteroid therapy on the skin eruption and pain of herpes zoster. JAMA. 1970; 211: 1681–1683.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  131. 131.
    Keczkes K, Basheer AM. Do corticosteroids prevent postherpetic neuralgia? Br J Dermatol. 1980; 102: 551–555.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  132. 132.
    Clemmenson OJ, Andersen KE. ACTH versus prednisone and placebo in herpes zoster treatment. Clin Exp Dermatol. 1984; 9: 557–563.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  133. 133.
    Esmann V, Geil JP, Kroon S, et al. Prednisolone does not prevent postherpetic neuralgia. Lancet. 1987; 2: 126–129.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  134. 134.
    Wood MJ, Johnson RW, McKendrick MW, et al. A randomized trial of acyclovir for 7 days or 21 days with and without prednisolone for treatment of acute herpes zoster. N Engl J Med. 1994; 330: 896–900.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  135. 135.
    Post BT, Philbrick JT. Do corticosteroids prevent postherpetic neuralgia? J Am Acad Dermatol. 1988; 3: 605–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  136. 136.
    Post BT, Philbrick JT. Prevention of postherpetic neuralgia by corticosteroids. In: Watson CPN, ed. Herpes Zoster and Postherpetic Neuralgia. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1993: 159–172.Google Scholar
  137. 137.
    Bowsher D. Acute herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia: effects of acyclovir and outcome of treatment with amitriptyline. Br J Gen Pract. 1992; 42: 244–246.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  138. 138.
    Fine PG. Nerve blocks, herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia. In: Watson CPN, ed. Herpes Zoster and Postherpetic Neuralgia. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1993: 173–182.Google Scholar
  139. 139.
    Riopelle J, Lopez-Anaya A, Cork RC, et al. Treatment of the cutaneous pain of acute herpes zoster with 9% lidocaine (base) in petrolatum/paraffin ointment. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1994; 30: 757–767.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  140. 140.
    Watson CPN, Evans RJ, Reed K, et al. Amitriptyline versus placebo in postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology. 1982; 32: 671–673.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  141. 141.
    Max MB, Schafer SC, Culnane M, et al. Amitriptyline, but not lorazepam, relieves postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology. 1988; 38: 1427–1432.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  142. 142.
    Kishore-Kumar R, Max MB, Schafer SC, et al. Desipramine relieves postherpetic neuralgia. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1990; 47: 305–312.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  143. 143.
    Watson CPN, Evans RJ. A comparative trial of amitriptyline and zimeldine in post-herpetic neuralgia. Pain. 1985; 23: 387–394.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  144. 144.
    Watson CPN, Chipman M, Reed K, et al. Amitriptyline versus maprotiline in postherpetic neuralgia: a randomized, double-blind, crossover trial. Pain. 1992; 48: 29–36.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  145. 145.
    Bernstein JE, Korman NJ, Bickers DR, et al. Topical capsaicin treatment of chronic postherpetic neuralgia. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1989; 21: 265–270.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  146. 146.
    Drake HF, Harries AJ, Gamester GE, et al. Randomised double-blind study of topical capsaicin for treatment of post-herpetic neuralgia. Pain. 1990; 5: 58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  147. 147.
    Watson CP, Tyler KL, Bickers DR. A randomized vehicle-controlled trial of topical capsaicin in the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia. Clin Ther. 1993; 15: 510–526.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  148. 148.
    Rowbotham MC, Fields HL. Topical lidocaine reduces pain in post-herpetic neuralgia. Pain. 1989; 38: 297–301.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  149. 149.
    Kissin I, McDanal J, Xavier AV. Topical lidocaine for relief of superficial pain in postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology. 1989; 39: 1132–1133.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  150. 150.
    Rowbotham MC, Miller KV, Davies P, et al. Topical lidocaine for post-herpetic neuralgia pain: results of a double blind, vehicle controlled trial. Neurology. 1992; 42 (suppl 3): 390.Google Scholar
  151. 151.
    Stow PJ, Glynn CJ, Minor B. EMLA cream in the treatment of post-herpetic neuralgia: efficacy and pharmacokinetic profile. Pain. 1989; 39: 301–305.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  152. 152.
    King RB. Topical aspirin in chloroform and the relief of pain due to herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia. Arch Neurol. 1993; 50: 1046–1053.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  153. 153.
    Amer A, Meyerson BA. Lack of analgesic effect of opioids on neuropathie and idiopathic forms of pain. Pain. 1988; 33: 11–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  154. 154.
    Rowbotham MC. Managing post-herpetic neuralgia with opioids and local anesthetics. Ann Neurol. 1993; 35: 46–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  155. 155.
    Watson CPN, Evans RJ, Watt VR, et al. Postherpetic neuralgia: 208 cases. Pain. 1988; 35: 289–297.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  156. 156.
    Zenz M, Strumpf M, Tryba M. Long-term oral opioid therapy in patients with non-malignant pain. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1992; 7: 69–67.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  157. 157.
    Rowbotham MC, Reisner LA, Fields HL. Both intravenous lidocaine and morphine reduce the pain of postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology. 1991; 41: 1024–1028.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  158. 158.
    Portenoy RK, Foley KM. Chronic use of opioid analgesics in non-malignant pain: report of 36 cases. Pain. 1986; 25: 171–186.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  159. 159.
    Nathan PW, Wall PD. Treatment of post-herpetic neuralgia by prolonged electric stimulation. Br Med J. 1974; 3: 645–647.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  160. 160.
    Takahashi M, Otsuke T, Okuno Y, et al. Live vaccine used to prevent the spread of varicella in children in hospital. Lancet. 1974; 2: 1288–1290.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  161. 161.
    Gershon AA, Steinberg S, Gelb L, NIAID Collaborative Varicella Vaccine Study Group. Live attenuated varicella vaccine: efficacy for children with leukemia in remission. JAMA. 1984; 252: 355–362.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  162. 162.
    Gershon AA, Steinberg S, NIAID Collaborative Varicella Vaccine Study Group. Persistence of immunity to varicella in children with leukemia immunized with live varicella vaccine. N Engl J Med. 1989; 320: 892–897.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  163. 163.
    Gershon AA, Steinberg S, LaRussa P, NIAID Collaborative Varicella Vaccine Study Group. Immunization of healthy adults with live attenuated varicella vaccine. J Infect Dis. 1988; 158: 132–137.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  164. 164.
    Weibel R, Neff BJ, Kuter BJ, et al. Live attenuated varicella virus vaccine: efficacy trial in healthy children. N Engl J Med. 1984; 310: 1409–1415.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  165. 165.
    Gershon AA, LaRussa P, Steinberg SP. Live attenuated varicella vaccine. In: Roizman B, Whitley RJ, Lopez C, eds. The Human Herpesviruses. New York: Raven Press; 1993: 357–366.Google Scholar
  166. 166.
    Berger R, Luescher D, Just M. Enhancement of varicellazoster-specific immune responses in the elderly by boosting with varicella vaccine. J Infect Dis. 1984; 149: 647.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  167. 167.
    Takahashi M, Iketani T, Sasada K, et al. Immunization of the elderly and patients with collagen vascular diseases with live varicella vaccine and use of varicella skin antigen. J Infect Dis. 1992; 166 (suppl 1): S58–62.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  168. 168.
    Levin MJ, Murray M, Rotbart HA, et al. Immune response of elderly individuals to a live attenuated varicella vaccine. J Infect Dis. 1992; 166: 253–259.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 1997

Authors and Affiliations

  • Kenneth Schmader

There are no affiliations available

Personalised recommendations