Advertisement

Gastroesophageal Reflux in Newborns and Premature Infants

  • Juan A. TovarEmail author
Chapter
First Online:

Abstract

Gastro-esophageal reflux (GER) is defined as the retrograde passage of gastric contents back into the esophagus where it does not belong. Food and gastric juice may damage the mucosa, interfere with respiratory function and impair nutrition. This phenomenon, which follows a failure of the anti-reflux barrier, is particularly frequent in infancy, a period during which it is considered a near-normal event. Episodes are usually short, occur after feeds and tend to decrease with the passage of time. When GER becomes bothersome, gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) develops.

In this chapter, only GER and GERD in newborns and young infants are addressed. The mechanisms, symptoms, associated conditions, diagnostic procedures and treatment recommendations are summarized.

Keywords

Gastroesophageal reflux GERD Investigations Fundoplication Gastrostomy Outcomes 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. 1.
    Dent J. Review article: from 1906 to 2006—a century of major evolution of understanding of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2006;24:1269–81.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  2. 2.
    Larsen WJ. Human embryology. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1997. p. 512.Google Scholar
  3. 3.
    Vandenplas Y, Rudolph CD, Di Lorenzo C, Hassall E, Liptak G, Mazur L, Sondheimer J, Staiano A, Thomson M, Veereman-Wauters G, Wenzl TG. Pediatric gastroesophageal reflux clinical practice guidelines: joint recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2009;49:498–547.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    Hu FZ, Donfack J, Ahmed A, Dopico R, Johnson S, Post JC, Ehrlich GD, Preston RA. Fine mapping a gene for pediatric gastroesophageal reflux on human chromosome 13q14. Hum Genet. 2004;114:562–72.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Orenstein SR, Shalaby TM, Barmada MM, Whitcomb DC. Genetics of gastroesophageal reflux disease: a review. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2002;34:506–10.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Bedu A, Faure C, Sibony O, Vuillard E, Mougenot JF, Aujard Y. Prenatal gastrointestinal bleeding caused by esophagitis and gastritis. J Pediatr. 1994;125:465–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Bray PF, Herbst JJ, Johnson DG, Book LS, Ziter FA, Condon VR. Childhood gastroesophageal reflux. Neurologic and psychiatric syndromes mimicked. JAMA. 1977;237:1342–5.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Boix-Ochoa J, Canals J. Maturation of the lower esophagus. J Pediatr Surg. 1976;11:749–56.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    Omari TI, Miki K, Fraser R, Davidson G, Haslam R, Goldsworthy W, Bakewell M, Kawahara H, Dent J. Esophageal body and lower esophageal sphincter function in healthy premature infants. Gastroenterology. 1995;109:1757–64.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Omari TI, Barnett C, Snel A, Goldsworthy W, Haslam R, Davidson G, Kirubakaran C, Bakewell M, Fraser R, Dent J. Mechanisms of gastroesophageal reflux in healthy premature infants. J Pediatr. 1998;133:650–4.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Omari T, Barnett C, Snel A, Davidson G, Haslam R, Bakewell M, Dent J. Mechanism of gastroesophageal reflux in premature infants with chronic lung disease. J Pediatr Surg. 1999;34:1795–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Omari TI, Benninga MA, Barnett CP, Haslam RR, Davidson GP, Dent J. Characterization of esophageal body and lower esophageal sphincter motor function in the very premature neonate. J Pediatr. 1999;135:517–21.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Staiano A, Boccia G, Salvia G, Zappulli D, Clouse RE. Development of esophageal peristalsis in preterm and term neonates. Gastroenterology. 2007;132:1718–25.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Omari TI, Miki K, Davidson G, Fraser R, Haslam R, Goldsworthy W, Bakewell M, Dent J. Characterisation of relaxation of the lower oesophageal sphincter in healthy premature infants. Gut. 1997;40:370–5.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Omari TI, Barnett CP, Benninga MA, Lontis R, Goodchild L, Haslam RR, Dent J, Davidson GP. Mechanisms of gastro-oesophageal reflux in preterm and term infants with reflux disease. Gut. 2002;51:475–9.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Aksglaede K, Pedersen JB, Lange A, Funch-Jensen P, Thommesen P. Gastro-esophageal reflux demonstrated by radiography in infants less than 1 year of age. Comparison with pH monitoring. Acta Radiol. 2003;44:136–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Salvatore S, Hauser B, Vandemaele K, Novario R, Vandenplas Y. Gastroesophageal reflux disease in infants: how much is predictable with questionnaires, pH-metry, endoscopy and histology? J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005;40:210–5.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Herbst JJ, Minton SD, Book LS. Gastroesophageal reflux causing respiratory distress and apnea in newborn infants. J Pediatr. 1979;95:763–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Boix-Ochoa J, Lafuenta JM, Gil-Vernet JM. Twenty-four hour exophageal pH monitoring in gastroesophageal reflux. J Pediatr Surg. 1980;15:74–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Sondheimer JM. Continuous monitoring of distal esophageal pH: a diagnostic test for gastroesophageal reflux in infants. J Pediatr. 1980;96:804–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Vandenplas Y, Sacre-Smits L. Continuous 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring in 285 asymptomatic infants 0–15 months old. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1987;6:220–4.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  22. 22.
    Vandenplas Y, Goyvaerts H, Helven R, Sacre L. Gastroesophageal reflux, as measured by 24-hour pH monitoring, in 509 healthy infants screened for risk of sudden infant death syndrome. Pediatrics. 1991;88:834–40.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Tovar JA, Wang W, Eizaguirre I. Simultaneous gastroesophageal pH monitoring and the diagnosis of alkaline reflux. J Pediatr Surg. 1993;28:1386–91. discussion 91–2CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Mitchell DJ, McClure BG, Tubman TR. Simultaneous monitoring of gastric and oesophageal pH reveals limitations of conventional oesophageal pH monitoring in milk fed infants. Arch Dis Child. 2001;84:273–6.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Wenzl TG, Schenke S, Peschgens T, Silny J, Heimann G, Skopnik H. Association of apnea and nonacid gastroesophageal reflux in infants: investigations with the intraluminal impedance technique. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2001;31:144–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Lopez-Alonso M, Moya MJ, Cabo JA, Ribas J, del Carmen MM, Silny J, Sifrim D. Twenty-four-hour esophageal impedance-pH monitoring in healthy preterm neonates: rate and characteristics of acid, weakly acidic, and weakly alkaline gastroesophageal reflux. Pediatrics. 2006;118:e299–308.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Dalby K, Nielsen RG, Markoew S, Kruse-Andersen S, Husby S. Reproducibility of 24-hour combined multiple intraluminal impedance (MII) and pH measurements in infants and children. Evaluation of a diagnostic procedure for gastroesophageal reflux disease. Dig Dis Sci. 2007;52:2159–65.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Fawcett HD, Hayden CK, Adams JC, Swischuk LE. How useful is gastroesophageal reflux scintigraphy in suspected childhood aspiration? Pediatr Radiol. 1988;18:311–3.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Orenstein SR, Klein HA, Rosenthal MS. Scintigraphy versus pH probe for quantification of pediatric gastroesophageal reflux: a study using concurrent multiplexed data and acid feedings. J Nucl Med. 1993;34:1228–34.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Morigeri C, Bhattacharya A, Mukhopadhyay K, Narang A, Mittal BR. Radionuclide scintigraphy in the evaluation of gastroesophageal reflux in symptomatic and asymptomatic pre-term infants. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2008;35:1659–65.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Moran JR, Block SM, Lyerly AD, Brooks LE, Dillard RG. Lipid-laden alveolar macrophage and lactose assay as markers of aspiration in neonates with lung disease. J Pediatr. 1988;112:643–5.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Krishnan U, Mitchell JD, Messina I, Day AS, Bohane TD. Assay of tracheal pepsin as a marker of reflux aspiration. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2002;35:303–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Farhath S, Aghai ZH, Nakhla T, Saslow J, He Z, Soundar S, Mehta DI. Pepsin, a reliable marker of gastric aspiration, is frequently detected in tracheal aspirates from premature ventilated neonates: relationship with feeding and methylxanthine therapy. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2006;43:336–41.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Wang W, Tovar JA, Eizaguirre I, Aldazabal P. Airway obstruction and gastroesophageal reflux: an experimental study on the pathogenesis of this association. J Pediatr Surg. 1993;28:995–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Wang W, Tovar JA, Eizaguirre I, Aldazabal P. Continuous positive airway pressure and gastroesophageal reflux: an experimental study. J Pediatr Surg. 1994;29:730–3.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Vandenplas Y, De Wolf D, Sacre L. Influence of xanthines on gastroesophageal reflux in infants at risk for sudden infant death syndrome. Pediatrics. 1986;77:807–10.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Peter CS, Wiechers C, Bohnhorst B, Silny J, Poets CF. Influence of nasogastric tubes on gastroesophageal reflux in preterm infants: a multiple intraluminal impedance study. J Pediatr. 2002;141:277–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    See CC, Newman LJ, Berezin S, Glassman MS, Medow MS, Dozor AJ, Schwarz SM. Gastroesophageal reflux-induced hypoxemia in infants with apparent life- threatening event(s). Am J Dis Child. 1989;143:951–4.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Hrabovsky EE, Mullett MD. Gastroesophageal reflux and the premature infant. J Pediatr Surg. 1986;21:583–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Bhat RY, Rafferty GF, Hannam S, Greenough A. Acid gastroesophageal reflux in convalescent preterm infants: effect of posture and relationship to apnea. Pediatr Res. 2007;62:620–3.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Paul K, Melichar J, Miletin J, Dittrichova J. Differential diagnosis of apneas in preterm infants. Eur J Pediatr. 2009;168:195–201.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Poets CF. Gastroesophageal reflux: a critical review of its role in preterm infants. Pediatrics. 2004;113:e128–32.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  43. 43.
    Trachterna M, Wenzl TG, Silny J, Rau G, Heimann G. Procedure for the semi-automatic detection of gastro-oesophageal reflux patterns in intraluminal impedance measurements in infants. Med Eng Phys. 1999;21:195–201.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Corvaglia L, Zama D, Gualdi S, Ferlini M, Aceti A, Faldella G. Gastro-oesophageal reflux increases the number of apnoeas in very preterm infants. Arch Dis Child. 2009;94:F188–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Di Fiore JM, Arko M, Churbock K, Hibbs AM, Martin RJ. Technical limitations in detection of gastroesophageal reflux in neonates. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2009;49:177–82.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Slocum C, Arko M, Di Fiore J, Martin RJ, Hibbs AM. Apnea, bradycardia and desaturation in preterm infants before and after feeding. J Perinatol. 2009;29:209–12.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. 47.
    Di Fiore J, Arko M, Herynk B, Martin R, Hibbs AM. Characterization of cardiorespiratory events following gastroesophageal reflux in preterm infants. J Perinatol. 2010;30:683–7.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Vane DW, Shiffler M, Grosfeld JL, Hall P, Angelides A, Weber TR, Fitzgerald JF. Reduced lower esophageal sphincter (LES) pressure after acute and chronic brain injury. J Pediatr Surg. 1982;17:960–4.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Shteyer E, Rothman E, Constantini S, Granot E. Gastroesophageal reflux in infants with hydrocephalus before and after ventriculo-peritoneal shunt operation. Pediatr Neurosurg. 1998;29:138–41.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  50. 50.
    Pensabene L, Miele E, Del Giudice E, Strisciuglio C, Staiano A. Mechanisms of gastroesophageal reflux in children with sequelae of birth asphyxia. Brain Dev. 2008;30:563–71.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Canal DF, Vane DW, Goto S, Gardner GP, Grosfeld JL. Changes in lower esophageal sphincter pressure (LES) after Stamm gastrostomy. J Surg Res. 1987;42:570–4.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  52. 52.
    Papaila JG, Vane DW, Colville C, Berend M, Mallik G, Canal D, Grosfeld JL. The effect of various types of gastrostomy on the lower esophageal sphincter. J Pediatr Surg. 1987;22:1198–202.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    Seekri IK, Rescorla FJ, Canal DF, Zollinger TW, Saywell R Jr, Grosfeld JL. Lesser curvature gastrostomy reduces the incidence of postoperative gastroesophageal reflux. J Pediatr Surg. 1991;26:982–4. discussion 4–5CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Davies M. Anatomy of the extrinsic nerve supply in oesophageal atresia of the common type. Pediatr Surg Int. 1996;11:230–3.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    Qi BQ, Uemura S, Farmer P, Myers NA, Hutson JM. Intrinsic innervation of the oesophagus in fetal rats with oesophageal atresia. Pediatr Surg Int. 1999;15:2–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  56. 56.
    Pederiva F, Burgos E, Francica I, Zuccarello B, Martinez L, Tovar JA. Intrinsic esophageal innervation in esophageal atresia without fistula. Pediatr Surg Int. 2008;24:95–100.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Zhou B, Hutson JM, Myers NA. Investigation of the intra-abdominal oesophagus and hiatus in fetal rats with oesophageal atresia and tracheo-oesophageal fistula. Pediatr Surg Int. 2001;17:97–100.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Montedonico S, Diez-Pardo JA, Possogel AK, Tovar JA. Effects of esophageal shortening on the gastroesophageal barrier: an experimental study on the causes of reflux in esophageal atresia. J Pediatr Surg. 1999;34:300–3.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Bagolan P, Iacobelli Bd B, De Angelis P, di Abriola GF, Laviani R, Trucchi A, Orzalesi M, Dall’Oglio L. Long gap esophageal atresia and esophageal replacement: moving toward a separation? J Pediatr Surg. 2004;39:1084–90.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Foker JE, Kendall Krosch TC, Catton K, Munro F, Khan KM. Long-gap esophageal atresia treated by growth induction: the biological potential and early follow-up results. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2009;18:23–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Puri P, Ninan GK, Blake NS, Fitzgerald RJ, Guiney EJ, O'Donnell B. Delayed primary anastomosis for esophageal atresia: 18 months’ to 11 years’ follow-up. J Pediatr Surg. 1992;27:1127–30.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Cheng W, Spitz L, Milla P. Surface electrogastrography in children with esophageal atresia. Pediatr Surg Int. 1997;12:552–5.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Tovar JA, Diez Pardo JA, Murcia J, Prieto G, Molina M, Polanco I. Ambulatory 24-hour manometric and pH metric evidence of permanent impairment of clearance capacity in patients with esophageal atresia. J Pediatr Surg. 1995;30:1224–31.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Dutta HK, Grover VP, Dwivedi SN, Bhatnagar V. Manometric evaluation of postoperative patients of esophageal atresia and tracheo-esophageal fistula. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 2001;11:371–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Tomaselli V, Volpi ML, Dell'Agnola CA, Bini M, Rossi A, Indriolo A. Long-term evaluation of esophageal function in patients treated at birth for esophageal atresia. Pediatr Surg Int. 2003;19:40–3.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Kawahara H, Kubota A, Hasegawa T, Okuyama H, Ueno T, Watanabe T, Morishita Y, Saka R, Fukuzawa M. Lack of distal esophageal contractions is a key determinant of gastroesophageal reflux disease after repair of esophageal atresia. J Pediatr Surg. 2007;42:2017–21.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Shono T, Suita S, Arima T, Handa N, Ishii K, Hirose R, Sakaguchi T. Motility function of the esophagus before primary anastomosis in esophageal atresia. J Pediatr Surg. 1993;28:673–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Isch JA, Rescorla FJ, Scherer LR 3rd, West KW, Grosfeld JL. The development of gastroesophageal reflux after percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy. J Pediatr Surg. 1997;32:321–2. discussion 2–3CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Sistonen S, Malmberg P, Malmstrom K, Haahtela T, Sarna S, Rintala RJ, Pakarinen MP. Repaired oesophageal atresia: respiratory morbidity and pulmonary function in adults. Eur Respir J. 2010;36:1106–12.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Pieretti R, Shandling B, Stephens CA. Resistant esophageal stenosis associated with reflux after repair of esophageal atresia: a therapeutic approach. J Pediatr Surg. 1974;9:355–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Okada A, Usui N, Inoue M, Kawahara H, Kubota A, Imura K, Kamata S. Esophageal atresia in Osaka: a review of 39 years’ experience. J Pediatr Surg. 1997;32:1570–4.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  72. 72.
    Thomas EJ, Kumar R, Dasan JB, Chandrashekar N, Agarwala S, Tripathi M, Bal CS. Radionuclide scintigraphy in the evaluation of gastro-oesophageal reflux in post-operative oesophageal atresia and tracheo-oesophageal fistula patients. Nucl Med Commun. 2003;24:317–20.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    Bergmeijer JH, Hazebroek FW. Prospective medical and surgical treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in esophageal atresia. J Am Coll Surg. 1998;187:153–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    Koivusalo AI, Pakarinen MP, Lindahl HG, Rintala RJ. The cumulative incidence of significant gastroesophageal reflux in patients with congenital diaphragmatic hernia-a systematic clinical, pH-metric, and endoscopic follow-up study. J Pediatr Surg. 2008;43:279–82.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Somppi E, Tammela O, Ruuska T, Rahnasto J, Laitinen J, Turjanmaa V, Jarnberg J. Outcome of patients operated on for esophageal atresia: 30 years’ experience. J Pediatr Surg. 1998;33:1341–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Deurloo JA, Ekkelkamp S, Taminiau JA, Kneepkens CM, ten Kate FW, Bartelsman JF, Legemate DA, Aronson DC. Esophagitis and Barrett esophagus after correction of esophageal atresia. J Pediatr Surg. 2005;40:1227–31.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Deurloo JA, Ekkelkamp S, Bartelsman JF, Ten Kate FJ, Schoorl M, Heij HA, Aronson DC. Gastroesophageal reflux: prevalence in adults older than 28 years after correction of esophageal atresia. Ann Surg. 2003;238:686–9.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Sistonen SJ, Koivusalo A, Lindahl H, Pukkala E, Rintala RJ, Pakarinen MP. Cancer after repair of esophageal atresia: population-based long-term follow-up. J Pediatr Surg. 2008;43:602–5.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Corbally MT, Muftah M, Guiney EJ. Nissen fundoplication for gastro-esophageal reflux in repaired tracheo-esophageal fistula. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 1992;2:332–5.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Ogita S, Goto Y, Hashimoto K, Iwai N, Nishioka B, Majima S. Prevention of gastroesophageal reflux using Nissen fundoplication in the staged repair of esophageal atresia with distal tracheoesophageal fistula. Jpn J Surg. 1983;13:554–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    Koot VC, Bergmeijer JH, Bos AP, Molenaar JC. Incidence and management of gastroesophageal reflux after repair of congenital diaphragmatic hernia. J Pediatr Surg. 1993;28:48–52.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Stolar CJ, Levy JP, Dillon PW, Reyes C, Belamarich P, Berdon WE. Anatomic and functional abnormalities of the esophagus in infants surviving congenital diaphragmatic hernia. Am J Surg. 1990;159:204–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  83. 83.
    Lally KP, Paranka MS, Roden J, Georgeson KE, Wilson JM, Lillehei CW, Breaux CW Jr, Poon M, Clark RH, Atkinson JB. Congenital diaphragmatic hernia. Stabilization and repair on ECMO. Ann Surg. 1992;216:569–73.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. 84.
    Van Meurs KP, Robbins ST, Reed VL, Karr SS, Wagner AE, Glass P, Anderson KD, Short BL. Congenital diaphragmatic hernia: long-term outcome in neonates treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Pediatr. 1993;122:893–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    Sigalet DL, Nguyen LT, Adolph V, Laberge JM, Hong AR, Guttman FM. Gastroesophageal reflux associated with large diaphragmatic hernias. J Pediatr Surg. 1994;29:1262–5.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Su W, Berry M, Puligandla PS, Aspirot A, Flageole H, Laberge JM. Predictors of gastroesophageal reflux in neonates with congenital diaphragmatic hernia. J Pediatr Surg. 2007;42:1639–43.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Vanamo K, Rintala RJ, Lindahl H, Louhimo I. Long-term gastrointestinal morbidity in patients with congenital diaphragmatic defects. J Pediatr Surg. 1996;31:551–4.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  88. 88.
    Martinez L, Gonzalez-Reyes S, Burgos E, Tovar JA. The vagus and recurrent laryngeal nerves in experimental congenital diaphragmatic hernia. Pediatr Surg Int. 2004;20:253–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Martinez L, Pederiva F, Martinez-Calonge W, Aras-Lopez R, Tovar JA. The myenteric plexus of the esophagus is abnormal in an experimental congenital diaphragmatic hernia model. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 2009;19:163–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  90. 90.
    Pederiva F, Rodriguez JI, Ruiz-Bravo E, Martinez L, Tovar JA. Abnormal intrinsic esophageal innervation in congenital diaphragmatic hernia: a likely cause of motor dysfunction. J Pediatr Surg. 2009;44:496–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  91. 91.
    Fasching G, Huber A, Uray E, Sorantin E, Lindbichler F, Mayr J. Gastroesophageal reflux and diaphragmatic motility after repair of congenital diaphragmatic hernia. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 2000;10:360–4.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Qi BQ, Merei J, Farmer P, Hasthorpe S, Myers NA, Beasley SW, Hutson JM. The vagus and recurrent laryngeal nerves in the rodent experimental model of esophageal atresia. J Pediatr Surg. 1997;32:1580–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  93. 93.
    Muratore CS, Utter S, Jaksic T, Lund DP, Wilson JM. Nutritional morbidity in survivors of congenital diaphragmatic hernia. J Pediatr Surg. 2001;36:1171–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  94. 94.
    Kamiyama M, Kawahara H, Okuyama H, Oue T, Kuroda S, Kubota A, Okada A. Gastroesophageal reflux after repair of congenital diaphragmatic hernia. J Pediatr Surg. 2002;37:1681–4.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Lally KP, Engle W. Postdischarge follow-up of infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia. Pediatrics. 2008;121:627–32.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  96. 96.
    Kawahara H, Okuyama H, Nose K, Nakai H, Yoneda A, Kubota A, Fukuzawa M. Physiological and clinical characteristics of gastroesophageal reflux after congenital diaphragmatic hernia repair. J Pediatr Surg. 2010;45:2346–50.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  97. 97.
    Qi B, Diez-Pardo JA, Soto C, Tovar JA. Transdiaphragmatic pressure gradients and the lower esophageal sphincter after tight abdominal wall plication in the rat. J Pediatr Surg. 1996;31:1666–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  98. 98.
    Wang ZQ, Todani T, Watanabe Y, Toki A, Sato Y, Ogura K, Yamamoto S. Esophageal hiatal hernia after omphalocele repair. Pediatr Surg Int. 1998;13:414–5.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  99. 99.
    Koivusalo A, Rintala R, Lindahl H. Gastroesophageal reflux in children with a congenital abdominal wall defect. J Pediatr Surg. 1999;34:1127–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  100. 100.
    Vandenplas Y, Belli DC, Dupont C, Kneepkens CM, Heymans HS. The relation between gastro-oesophageal reflux, sleeping-position and sudden infant death and its impact on positional therapy. Eur J Pediatr. 1997;156:104–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  101. 101.
    Ewer AK, James ME, Tobin JM. Prone and left lateral positioning reduce gastro-oesophageal reflux in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child. 1999;81:F201–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. 102.
    Vandenplas Y, De Schepper J, Verheyden S, Devreker T, Franckx J, Peelman M, Denayer E, Hauser B. A preliminary report on the efficacy of the Multicare AR-Bed in 3-week-3-month-old infants on regurgitation, associated symptoms and acid reflux. Arch Dis Child. 2010;95:26–30.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  103. 103.
    Orenstein SR, Magill HL, Brooks P. Thickening of infant feedings for therapy of gastroesophageal reflux. J Pediatr. 1987;110:181–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  104. 104.
    Vandenplas Y, Belli D, Cadranel S, Cucchiara S, Dupont C, Heymans H, Polanco I. Dietary treatment for regurgitation—recommendations from a working party. Acta Paediatr. 1998;87:462–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  105. 105.
    Horvath A, Dziechciarz P, Szajewska H. The effect of thickened-feed interventions on gastroesophageal reflux in infants: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. Pediatrics. 2008;122:e1268–77.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  106. 106.
    Vandenplas Y, Belli DC, Benatar A, Cadranel S, Cucchiara S, Dupont C, Gottrand F, Hassall E, Heymans HS, Kearns G, Kneepkens CM, Koletzko S, Milla P, Polanco I, Staiano AM. The role of cisapride in the treatment of pediatric gastroesophageal reflux. The European Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1999;28:518–28.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  107. 107.
    Ward RM, Lemons JA, Molteni RA. Cisapride: a survey of the frequency of use and adverse events in premature newborns. Pediatrics. 1999;103:469–72.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  108. 108.
    Khoshoo V, Edell D, Clarke R. Effect of cisapride on the QT interval in infants with gastroesophageal reflux. Pediatrics. 2000;105:E24.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  109. 109.
    Augood C, Gilbert R, Logan S, MacLennan S. Cisapride treatment for gastro-oesophageal reflux in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002:CD002300.Google Scholar
  110. 110.
    McClure RJ, Kristensen JH, Grauaug A. Randomised controlled trial of cisapride in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child. 1999;80:F174–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  111. 111.
    Cucchiara S, Gobio-Casali L, Balli F, Magazzu G, Staiano A, Astolfi R, Amarri S, Conti-Nibali S, Guandalini S. Cimetidine treatment of reflux esophagitis in children: an Italian multicentric study. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1989;8:150–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  112. 112.
    Malcolm WF, Gantz M, Martin RJ, Goldstein RF, Goldberg RN, Cotten CM. Use of medications for gastroesophageal reflux at discharge among extremely low birth weight infants. Pediatrics. 2008;121:22–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  113. 113.
    Orenstein SR, Shalaby TM, Devandry SN, Liacouras CA, Czinn SJ, Dice JE, Simon TJ, Ahrens SP, Stauffer LA. Famotidine for infant gastro-oesophageal reflux: a multi-centre, randomized, placebo-controlled, withdrawal trial. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2003;17:1097–107.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  114. 114.
    Barron JJ, Tan H, Spalding J, Bakst AW, Singer J. Proton pump inhibitor utilization patterns in infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2007;45:421–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  115. 115.
    Omari T, Davidson G, Bondarov P, Naucler E, Nilsson C, Lundborg P. Pharmacokinetics and acid-suppressive effects of esomeprazole in infants 1–24 months old with symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2007;45:530–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  116. 116.
    Winter H, Kum-Nji P, Mahomedy SH, Kierkus J, Hinz M, Li H, Maguire MK, Comer GM. Efficacy and safety of pantoprazole delayed-release granules for oral suspension in a placebo-controlled treatment-withdrawal study in infants 1–11 months old with symptomatic GERD. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2010;50:609–18.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  117. 117.
    Kierkus J, Furmaga-Jablonska W, Sullivan JE, David ES, Stewart DL, Rath N, Fu C, Wang W, Maguire MK, Comer GM. Pharmacodynamics and safety of pantoprazole in neonates, preterm infants, and infants aged 1 through 11 months with a clinical diagnosis of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Dig Dis Sci. 2011;56:425–34.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  118. 118.
    Rudolph CD. Are proton pump inhibitors indicated for the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children? J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;37(Suppl 1):S60–4.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  119. 119.
    Dhillon AS, Ewer AK. Diagnosis and management of gastro-oesophageal reflux in preterm infants in neonatal intensive care units. Acta Paediatr. 2004;93:88–93.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  120. 120.
    Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, Baker RD, Boyle JT, Colletti RB, Gerson WT, Werlin SL. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(Suppl 2):S1–31.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  121. 121.
    Tovar JA, Angulo JA, Gorostiaga L, Arana J. Surgery for gastroesophageal reflux in children with normal pH studies. J Pediatr Surg. 1991;26:541–5.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  122. 122.
    Kloek JJ, van de Laar GA, Deurloo JA, Aronson DC, Benninga MA, Taminiau JA, Heij HA. Long-term results of boerema anterior gastropexy in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2006;43:71–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  123. 123.
    Ramachandran V, Ashcraft KW, Sharp RJ, Murphy PJ, Snyder CL, Gittes GK, Bickler SW. Thal fundoplication in neurologically impaired children. J Pediatr Surg. 1996;31:819–22.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  124. 124.
    Ashcraft KW. Fundoplication controversies in the treatment of pediatric gastroesophageal reflux disease. Introduction. Semin Pediatr Surg. 1998;7:108–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  125. 125.
    Boix-Ochoa J. The physiologic approach to the management of gastric esophageal reflux. J Pediatr Surg. 1986;21:1032–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  126. 126.
    Fonkalsrud EW, Ament ME, Byrne WJ, Rachelefsky GS. Gastroesophageal fundoplication for the management of reflux in infants and children. J Thor Cardiovasc Surg. 1978;76:655–64.Google Scholar
  127. 127.
    Fonkalsrud EW, Bustorff-Silva J, Perez CA, Quintero R, Martin L, Atkinson JB. Antireflux surgery in children under 3 months of age. J Pediatr Surg. 1999;34:527–31.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  128. 128.
    Kawahara H, Imura K, Yagi M, Yoneda A, Soh H, Tazuke Y, Okada A. Mechanisms underlying the antireflux effect of Nissen fundoplication in children. J Pediatr Surg. 1998;33:1618–22.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  129. 129.
    Bensoussan AL, Yazbeck S, Carceller-Blanchard A. Results and complications of Toupet partial posterior wrap: 10 years’ experience. J Pediatr Surg. 1994;29:1215–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  130. 130.
    Weber TR. Toupet fundoplication for gastroesophageal reflux in childhood. Arch Surg. 1999;134:717–20.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  131. 131.
    Lobe TE, Schropp KP, Lunsford K. Laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication in childhood. J Pediatr Surg. 1993;28:358–61.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  132. 132.
    Heloury Y, Plattner V, Mirallie E, Gerard P, Lejus C. Laparoscopic nissen fundoplication with simultaneous percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy in children. Surg Endosc. 1996;10:837–41.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  133. 133.
    van der Zee DC, Bax NM. Laparoscopic Thal fundoplication in mentally retarded children. Surg Endosc. 1996;10:659–61.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  134. 134.
    Georgeson KE. Laparoscopic fundoplication and gastrostomy. Semin Laparosc Surg. 1998;5:25–30.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  135. 135.
    Rothenberg SS. Experience with 220 consecutive laparoscopic Nissen fundoplications in infants and children. J Pediatr Surg. 1998;33:274–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  136. 136.
    Esposito C, Montupet P, Reinberg O. Laparoscopic surgery for gastroesophageal reflux disease during the first year of life. J Pediatr Surg. 2001;36:715–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  137. 137.
    Rothenberg SS. Laparoscopic Nissen procedure in children. Semin Laparosc Surg. 2002;9:146–52.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  138. 138.
    van der Zee DC, Bax KN, Ure BM, Besselink MG, Pakvis DF. Long-term results after laparoscopic Thal procedure in children. Semin Laparosc Surg. 2002;9:168–71.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  139. 139.
    Steyaert H, Al Mohaidly M, Lembo MA, Carfagna L, Tursini S, Valla JS. Long-term outcome of laparoscopic Nissen and Toupet fundoplication in normal and neurologically impaired children. Surg Endosc. 2003;17:543–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  140. 140.
    Lima M, Bertozzi M, Ruggeri G, Domini M, Libri M, Parigi GB, De Biagi L, Franzoni E, Bernardi F. Laparoscopic antireflux surgery in neurologically impaired children. Pediatr Surg Int. 2004;20:114–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  141. 141.
    Mattioli G, Bax K, Becmeur F, Esposito C, Heloury Y, Podevin G, Lima M, MacKinlay GA, Goessler A, Tovar JA, Valla J, Tuo P, Nahum L, Ottonello G, Sacco O, Gentilino V, Pini-Prato A, Caponcelli E, Jasonni V. European multicenter survey on the laparoscopic treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in patients aged less than 12 months with supraesophageal symptoms. Surg Endosc. 2005;19:1309–14.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  142. 142.
    Esposito C, Montupet P, van Der Zee D, Settimi A, Paye-Jaouen A, Centonze A, Bax NK. Long-term outcome of laparoscopic Nissen, Toupet, and Thal antireflux procedures for neurologically normal children with gastroesophageal reflux disease. Surg Endosc. 2006;20:855–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  143. 143.
    Shah SR, Jegapragasan M, Fox MD, Prince JM, Segura BJ, Kane TD. A review of laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication in children weighing less than 5 kg. J Pediatr Surg. 2010;45:1165–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  144. 144.
    Tovar JA, Luis AL, Encinas JL, Burgos L, Pederiva F, Martinez L, Olivares P. Pediatric surgeons and gastroesophageal reflux. J Pediatr Surg. 2007;42:277–83.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  145. 145.
    Cohen Z, Fishman S, Yulevich A, Kurtzbart E, Mares AJ. Nissen fundoplication and Boix-Ochoa antireflux procedure: comparison between two surgical techniques in the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in children. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 1999;9:289–93.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  146. 146.
    Kubiak R, Spitz L, Kiely EM, Drake D, Pierro A. Effectiveness of fundoplication in early infancy. J Pediatr Surg. 1999;34:295–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  147. 147.
    Lewis D, Khoshoo V, Pencharz PB, Golladay ES. Impact of nutritional rehabilitation on gastroesophageal reflux in neurologically impaired children. J Pediatr Surg. 1994;29:167–70.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  148. 148.
    Giuffre RM, Rubin S, Mitchell I. Antireflux surgery in infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am J Dis Child. 1987;141:648–51.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  149. 149.
    Newell SJ, Booth IW, Morgan ME, Durbin GM, McNeish AS. Gastro-oesophageal reflux in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child. 1989;64:780–6.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  150. 150.
    Jolley SG, Halpern CT, Sterling CE, Feldman BH. The relationship of respiratory complications from gastroesophageal reflux to prematurity in infants. J Pediatr Surg. 1990;25:755–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  151. 151.
    Barnes N, Robertson N, Lakhoo K. Anti-reflux surgery for the neonatal intensive care-dependent infant. Early Hum Dev. 2003;75:71–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  152. 152.
    Peter CS, Sprodowski N, Bohnhorst B, Silny J, Poets CF. Gastroesophageal reflux and apnea of prematurity: no temporal relationship. Pediatrics. 2002;109:8–11.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  153. 153.
    Stringel G, Delgado M, Guertin L, Cook JD, Maravilla A, Worthen H. Gastrostomy and Nissen fundoplication in neurologically impaired children. J Pediatr Surg. 1989;24:1044–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  154. 154.
    Wadie GM, Lobe TE. Gastroesophageal reflux disease in neurologically impaired children: the role of the gastrostomy tube. Semin Laparosc Surg. 2002;9:180–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  155. 155.
    Esposito C, Van Der Zee DC, Settimi A, Doldo P, Staiano A, Bax NM. Risks and benefits of surgical management of gastroesophageal reflux in neurologically impaired children. Surg Endosc. 2003;17:708–10.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  156. 156.
    Langer JC, Wesson DE, Ein SH, Filler RM, Shandling B, Superina RA, Papa M. Feeding gastrostomy in neurologically impaired children: is an antireflux procedure necessary? J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1988;7:837–41.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  157. 157.
    Puntis JW, Thwaites R, Abel G, Stringer MD. Children with neurological disorders do not always need fundoplication concomitant with percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2000;42:97–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  158. 158.
    Burd RS, Price MR, Whalen TV. The role of protective antireflux procedures in neurologically impaired children: a decision analysis. J Pediatr Surg. 2002;37:500–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  159. 159.
    Dedinsky GK, Vane DW, Black T, Turner MK, West KW, Grosfeld JL. Complications and reoperation after Nissen fundoplication in childhood. Am J Surg. 1987;153:177–83.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  160. 160.
    Pearl RH, Robie DK, Ein SH, Shandling B, Wesson DE, Superina R, McTaggart K, Garcia VF, O’Connor JA, Filler RM. Complications of gastroesophageal antireflux surgery in neurologically impaired versus neurologically normal children. J Pediatr Surg. 1990;25:1169–73.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  161. 161.
    Fonkalsrud EW, Ashcraft KW, Coran AG, Ellis DG, Grosfeld JL, Tunell WP, Weber TR. Surgical treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in children: a combined hospital study of 7467 patients. Pediatrics. 1998;101:419–22.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  162. 162.
    Martinez DA, Ginn-Pease ME, Caniano DA. Sequelae of antireflux surgery in profoundly disabled children. J Pediatr Surg. 1992;27:267–71. discussion 71–3PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  163. 163.
    Gatti C, di Abriola GF, Villa M, De Angelis P, Laviani R, La Sala E, Dall’Oglio L. Esophagogastric dissociation versus fundoplication: which is best for severely neurologically impaired children? J Pediatr Surg. 2001;36:677–80.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  164. 164.
    Islam S, Teitelbaum DH, Buntain WL, Hirschl RB. Esophagogastric separation for failed fundoplication in neurologically impaired children. J Pediatr Surg. 2004;39:287–91.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  165. 165.
    Goyal A, Khalil B, Choo K, Mohammed K, Jones M. Esophagogastric dissociation in the neurologically impaired: an alternative to fundoplication? J Pediatr Surg. 2005;40:915–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  166. 166.
    Langer JC. The failed fundoplication. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2003;12:110–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  167. 167.
    Esposito C, Settimi A, Centonze A, Capano G, Ascione G. Laparoscopic-assisted jejunostomy: an effective procedure for the treatment of neurologically impaired children with feeding problems and gastroesophageal reflux. Surg Endosc. 2005;19:501–4.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  168. 168.
    Esposito C, Langer JC, Schaarschmidt K, Mattioli G, Sauer C, Centonze A, Cigliano B, Settimi A, Jasonni V. Laparoscopic antireflux procedures in the management of gastroesophageal reflux following esophageal atresia repair. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005;40:349–51.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  169. 169.
    Snyder CL, Ramachandran V, Kennedy AP, Gittes GK, Ashcraft KW, Holder TM. Efficacy of partial wrap fundoplication for gastroesophageal reflux after repair of esophageal atresia. J Pediatr Surg. 1997;32:1089–91. discussion 92CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  170. 170.
    Lindahl H, et al. Failure of the Nissen fundoplication to control gastroesophageal reflux in esophageal atresia patients. J Pediatr Surg. 1989;24:985–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  171. 171.
    Wheatley MJ, Coran AG, Wesley JR. Efficacy of the Nissen fundoplication in the management of gastroesophageal reflux following esophageal atresia repair. J Pediatr Surg. 1993;28:53–5.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  172. 172.
    Cameron BH, Cochran WJ, McGill CW. The uncut Collis-Nissen fundoplication: results for 79 consecutively treated high-risk children. J Pediatr Surg. 1997;32:887–91.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  173. 173.
    Kawahara H, Imura K, Yagi M, Kubota A, Okada A. Collis-Nissen procedure in patients with esophageal atresia: long-term evaluation. World J Surg. 2002;26:1222–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  174. 174.
    Caniano DA, Ginn-Pease ME, King DR. The failed antireflux procedure: analysis of risk factors and morbidity. J Pediatr Surg. 1990;25:1022–5.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  175. 175.
    Hassall E. Wrap session: is the Nissen slipping? Can medical treatment replace surgery for severe gastroesophageal reflux disease in children? Am J Gastroenterol. 1995;90:1212–20.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  176. 176.
    Pashankar D, Blair GK, Israel DM. Omeprazole maintenance therapy for gastroesophageal reflux disease after failure of fundoplication. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32:145–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  177. 177.
    Bianchi A. Total esophagogastric dissociation: an alternative approach. J Pediatr Surg. 1997;32:1291–4.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  178. 178.
    de Lagausie P, Bonnard A, Schultz A, Van den Abbeel T, Bellaiche M, Hartmann JF, Cezard JP, Aigrain Y. Reflux in esophageal atresia, tracheoesophageal cleft, and esophagocoloplasty: Bianchi’s procedure as an alternative approach. J Pediatr Surg. 2005;40:666–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  179. 179.
    Al-Hathal M, Crankson SJ, Al-Harbi F, Ahmed G, Tawil K. Congenital diaphragmatic hernia: experience with preoperative stabilization and delayed surgery without ECMO and inhaled nitric oxide. Am J Perinatol. 1998;15:487–90.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  180. 180.
    Chamond C, Morineau M, Gouizi G, Bargy F, Beaudoin S. Preventive antireflux surgery in patients with congenital diaphragmatic hernia. World J Surg. 2008;32:2454–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  181. 181.
    Dariel A, Roze JC, Piloquet H, Podevin G. Impact of prophylactic fundoplication on survival without growth disorder in left congenital diaphragmatic hernia requiring a patch repair. J Pediatr. 2010;157:688–90. 90.e1CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  182. 182.
    Lambert AW, Huddart SN. Mesh hiatal reinforcement in Nissen fundoplication. Pediatr Surg Int. 2001;17:491–2.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  183. 183.
    Beaudoin S, Kieffer G, Sapin E, Bargy F, Helardot PG. Gastroesophageal reflux in neonates with congenital abdominal wall defect. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 1995;5:323–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  184. 184.
    Golladay ES, Wagner CW. Transthoracic fundoplication after previous abdominal surgery: an alternate approach. South Med J. 1990;83:1029–32.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2018

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Department of Pediatric SurgeryHospital Universitario “La Paz”MadridSpain

Personalised recommendations

Cite chapter

Buy options