Advertisement

Development of Visual-Spatial Attention

  • Scott P. JohnsonEmail author
Chapter
First Online:
Part of the Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences book series (CTBN, volume 41)

Abstract

This chapter reviews literature on development of visual-spatial attention. A brief overview of brain mechanisms of visual perception is provided, followed by discussion of neural maturation in the prenatal period, infancy, and childhood. This is followed by sections on gaze control, eye movement systems, and orienting. The chapter concludes with consideration of development of space, objects, and scenes. Visual-spatial attention reflects an intricate set of motor, perceptual, and cognitive systems that work jointly and all develop in tandem.

Keywords

Attention Human development Infancy Neural development Object perception Spatial perception Visual perception 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. Adler SA, Inslicht S, Rovee-Collier C, Gerhardstein PC (1998) Perceptual asymmetry and memory retrieval in 3-month-old infants. Infant Behav Dev 21:253–272Google Scholar
  2. Aguiar A, Baillargeon R (1999) 2.5-month-old infants’ reasoning about when objects should and should not be occluded. Cogn Psychol 39:116–157PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  3. Amso D, Johnson SP (2005) Selection and inhibition in infancy: evidence from the spatial negative priming paradigm. Cognition 95:B27–B36PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  4. Amso D, Haas S, Markant J (2014) An eye tracking investigation of developmental change in bottom-up attention orienting to faces in cluttered natural scenes. PLoS One 9:e85701PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  5. Amso D, Johnson SP (2006) Learning by selection: visual search and object perception in young infants. Dev Psychol 42:1236–1245PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  6. Amso D, Johnson SP (2008) Development of visual selection in 3- to 9-month-olds: evidence from saccades to previously ignored locations. Infancy 13:675–686PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  7. Aslin RN (1981) Development of smooth pursuit in human infants. In: Fisher DF, Monty RA, Senders JW (eds) Eye movements: cognition and visual perception. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, pp 31–51Google Scholar
  8. Aslin RN (2007) What’s in a look? Dev Sci 10:48–53PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  9. Aslin RN, Johnson SP (1994) Suppression of VOR by human infants. Poster presented at the association for research in vision and ophthalmology conference, Sarasota, FL, May 1994Google Scholar
  10. Aslin RN, Johnson SP (1996) Suppression of the optokinetic reflex in human infants: implications for stable fixation and shifts of attention. Infant Behav Dev 19:233–240Google Scholar
  11. Atkinson J (1984) Human visual development over the first 6 months of life: a review and a hypothesis. Hum Neurobiol 3:l–74Google Scholar
  12. Atkinson J (2000) The developing visual brain. Oxford University Press, New YorkGoogle Scholar
  13. Atkinson J, Braddick O (1981) Development of optokinetic nystagmus in infants: an indicator of cortical binocularity? In: Fisher DF, Monty RA, Senders JW (eds) Eye movements: cognition and visual perception. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, pp 53–64Google Scholar
  14. Baillargeon R (1993) The object concept revisited: new directions in the investigations of infants’ physical knowledge. In: Granrud CE (ed) Visual perception in infancy. Carnegie-Mellon symposia on cognition, vol 23. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, pp 265–316Google Scholar
  15. Banks M, Salapatek P (1983) Infant visual perception. In: Haith MM, Campos JJ (ed) Infancy and developmental psychobiology. Handbook of child psychology (ser ed: Mussen PH), vol 2, 4th edn. Wiley, New York, pp 435–572Google Scholar
  16. Borji A, Sihite DN, Itti L (2013) What stands out in a scene? A study of human explicit saliency judgment. Vis Res 91:62–77PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  17. Bourgeois J-P, Goldman-Rakic PS, Rakic P (2000) Formation, elimination, and stabilization of synapses in the primate cerebral cortex. In: Gazzaniga MS (ed) The new cognitive neurosciences. MIT Press, Cambridge, pp 45–53Google Scholar
  18. Bremner JG, Slater AM, Johnson SP (2015) Perception of object persistence: the origins of object permanence in infancy. Child Dev Perspect 9:7–13Google Scholar
  19. Bronson G (1974) The postnatal growth of visual capacity. Child Dev 45:873–890PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  20. Bronson G (1990) Changes in infants’ visual scanning across the 2- to 14-week age period. J Exp Child Psychol 49:101–125PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  21. Bronson G (1994) Infants’ transitions toward adult-like scanning. Child Dev 65:1243–1261PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  22. Clancy B, Darlington RB, Finlay BL (2000) The course of human events: predicting the timing of primate neural development. Dev Sci 3:57–66Google Scholar
  23. Clohessy AB, Posner MI, Rothbart MK, Vecera S (1991) The development of inhibition of return in early infancy. J Cogn Neurosci 3:345–350PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  24. Cohen LB (1976) Habituation of infant visual attention. In: Tighe RJ, Leaton RN (eds) Habituation: perspectives from child development, animal behavior, and neurophysiology. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, pp 207–238Google Scholar
  25. Colombo J (2001) The development of visual attention in infancy. Annu Rev Psychol 52:337–367PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  26. Colombo J, Ryther JS, Frick JE, Gifford JJ (1995) Visual pop-out in infants: evidence for preattentive search in 3- and 4-month olds. Psychon B Rev 2:266–268Google Scholar
  27. Dannemiller JL (1998) A competition model of exogenous orienting in 3.5-month-old infants. J Exp Child Psychol 68:169–201PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  28. Dannemiller JL (2000) Competition in early exogenous orienting between 7 and 21 weeks. J Exp Child Psychol 76:253–274PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  29. Dannemiller JL (2002) Relative color contrast drives competition in early exogenous orienting. Infancy 3:275–301Google Scholar
  30. Davidson M, Amso D, Cruess L, Diamond A (2006) Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4–13 years: evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching. Neuropsychologia 44:2037–2078PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  31. Einhaüser W, Spain M, Perona P (2008) Objects predict fixations better than early saliency. J Vis 8:18Google Scholar
  32. Elazary L, Itti L (2008) Interesting objects are visually salient. J Vis 8:3PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  33. Eswaran H, Lowery CL, Wilson JD, Murphy P, Preissi H (2004) Functional development of the visual system in human fetus using magnetoencephalography. Exp Neurol 190:52–58Google Scholar
  34. Fantz RL (1961) The origin of form perception. Sci Am 204:66–72PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  35. Fantz RL (1964) Visual experience in infants: decreased attention to familiar patterns relative to novel ones. Science 146:668–670Google Scholar
  36. Finlay BL, Clancy B, Kingsbury MA (2003) The developmental neurobiology of early vision. In: Hopkins B, Johnson SP (eds) Neurobiology of infant vision. Praeger, Westport, pp 1–41Google Scholar
  37. Finlay BL, Darlington RB (1995) Linked regularities in the development and evolution of mammalian brains. Science 268:1578–1584Google Scholar
  38. Foulsham T, Kingstone A (2013) Optimal and preferred eye landing positions in objects and scenes. Q J Exp Psychol 66:1707–1728Google Scholar
  39. Franchak JM, Kretch KS, Soska KC, Adolph KE (2011) Head-mounted eye-tracking: a new method to describe infant looking. Child Dev 82:1738–1750PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  40. Franchak JM, Heeger DJ, Hasson U, Adolph KE (2016) Free viewing gaze behavior in infants and adults. Infancy 21:262–287Google Scholar
  41. Frank MC, Vul E, Johnson SP (2009) Development of infants’ attention to faces during the first year. Cognition 110:160–170Google Scholar
  42. Frank MC, Amso D, Johnson SP (2014) Visual search and attention to faces in early infancy. J Exp Child Psychol 118:13–26PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  43. Fulford J, Vadeyar SH, Dodampahala SH, Moore RJ, Young P, Baker PN et al (2003) Fetal brain activity in response to a visual stimulus. Hum Brain Mapp 20:239–245Google Scholar
  44. Gilmore RO, Johnson MH (1997) Body-centered representations for visually-guided action emerge during early infancy. Cognition 65:B1–B9Google Scholar
  45. Gilmore RO, Baker TJ, Grobman KH (2004) Stability in young infants’ discrimination of optic flow. Dev Psychol 40:259–270PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  46. Goodale MA, Milner AD (1992) Separate visual pathways for perception and action. Trends Neurosci 15:20–25PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  47. Gregory NJ, Hermens F, Facey R, Hodgson TL (2016) The developmental trajectory of attentional orienting to socio-biological cues. Exp Brain Res 234:1351–1362PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  48. Haith MM (1980) Rules that babies look by: the organization of newborn visual activity. Erlbaum, HillsdaleGoogle Scholar
  49. Helo A, Rämä P, Pannasch S, Meary D (2016) Eye movement patterns and visual attention during scene viewing in 3-to 12-month-olds. Vis Neurosci 33:E014PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  50. Henderson JM, Hayes TR (2017) Meaning-based guidance of attention in scenes as revealed by meaning maps. Nat Hum Behav 1:743–747Google Scholar
  51. Hood BM, Murray L, King F, Hooper R, Atkinson J, Braddick O (1996) Habituation changes in early infancy: longitudinal measures from birth to 6 months. J Reprod Infant Psychol 14:177–185Google Scholar
  52. Hood BM, Atkinson J, Braddick O (1998) Selection-for-action and the development of orienting and visual attention. In: Richards JE (ed) Cognitive neuroscience of attention: a developmental perspective. Erlbaum, Mahwah, pp 219–250Google Scholar
  53. Hunter MA, Ames EW (1988) A multifactor model of infant preferences for novel and familiar stimuli. In: Rovee-Collier C, Lipsitt LP (eds) Advances in child development and behavior, vol 5. Ablex, Norwood, pp 69–93Google Scholar
  54. Itti L, Koch C (2000) A saliency-based search mechanism for overt and covert shifts of visual attention. Vis Res 40:1489–1506Google Scholar
  55. Itti L, Koch C, Niebur E (1998) A model of saliency-based visual attention for rapid scene analysis. IEEE Trans Pattern Anal Mach Intell 20:1254–1259Google Scholar
  56. James W (1890) Principles of psychology. Holt, New YorkGoogle Scholar
  57. Johnson MH (1990) Cortical maturation and the development of visual attention in early infancy. J Cogn Neurosci 2:81–95Google Scholar
  58. Johnson MH (1995) The development of visual attention: a cognitive neuroscience perspective. In: Gazzaniga MS (ed) The cognitive neurosciences. MIT Press, Cambridge, pp 735–747Google Scholar
  59. Johnson SP (1996) Habituation patterns and object perception in young infants. J Reprod Infant Psychol 14:207–218Google Scholar
  60. Johnson SP (1997) Young infants’ perception of object unity: implications for development of attentional and cognitive skills. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 6:5–11Google Scholar
  61. Johnson SP (2001) Neurophysiological and psychophysical approaches to visual development. In: Kalverboer AF, Gramsbergen A (eds) Handbook of brain and behaviour in human development. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 653–675Google Scholar
  62. Johnson MH (2005) Developmental cognitive neuroscience, 2nd edn. Blackwell, OxfordGoogle Scholar
  63. Johnson SP (2010) How infants learn about the visual world. Cogn Sci 34:1158–1184PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  64. Johnson SP, Johnson KL (2000) Early perception-action coupling: eye movements and the development of object perception. Infant Behav Dev 23:461–483Google Scholar
  65. Johnson MH, Tucker LA (1996) The development and temporal dynamics of spatial orienting in infants. J Exp Child Psychol 63:171–188PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  66. Johnson MH, Posner MI, Rothbart MK (1991) Components of visual orienting in early infancy: contingency learning, anticipatory looking, and disengaging. J Cogn Neurosci 3:335–344PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  67. Johnson MH, Posner MI, Rothbart MK (1994) Facilitation of saccades toward a covertly attended location in early infancy. Psychol Sci 5:90–93Google Scholar
  68. Johnson SP, Bremner JG, Slater A, Mason U, Foster K, Cheshire A (2003) Infants’ perception of object trajectories. Child Dev 74:94–108Google Scholar
  69. Johnson SP, Slemmer JA, Amso D (2004) Where infants look determines how they see: eye movements and object perception performance in 3-month-olds. Infancy 6:185–201Google Scholar
  70. Johnson SP, Davidow J, Hall-Haro C, Frank MC (2008) Development of perceptual completion originates in information acquisition. Dev Psychol 44:1214–1224PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  71. Kiorpes L, Movshon JA (2004) Neural limitations on visual development in primates. In: Chalupa LM, Werner JS (eds) The visual neurosciences. MIT Press, Cambridge, pp 159–188Google Scholar
  72. Komatsu H, Wurtz RH (1989) Relation of cortical areas MT and MST to smooth pursuit eye movements. In: Ito M (ed) Neural programming. Japan Scientific Societies Press, Tokyo, pp 137–148Google Scholar
  73. Kremenitzer JP, Vaughan HG Jr, Kurtzberg D, Dowling K (1979) Smooth-pursuit eye movements in the newborn infant. Child Dev 50:442–448PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  74. Kretch KS, Franchak JM, Adolph KE (2014) Crawling and walking infants see the world differently. Child Dev 85:1503–1518PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  75. Luna B, Velanova K, Geier CF (2008) Development of eye-movement control. Brain Cogn 68:293–308PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  76. Macchi Cassia V, Simion F, Milani I, Umiltà C (2002) Dominance of global visual properties at birth. J Exp Psychol Gen 131:398–411Google Scholar
  77. Mahdi A, Su M, Schlesinger M, Qin J (2017) A comparison study of saliency models for fixation prediction on infants and adults. IEEE Trans Cogn Dev Syst 10:485–498Google Scholar
  78. Mareschal D, Johnson SP (2002) Learning to perceive object unity: a connectionist account. Dev Sci 5:151–185Google Scholar
  79. Mareschal D, Quinn PC (2001) Categorization in infancy. Trends Cogn Sci 5:443–450PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  80. Marx V, Nagy E (2015) Fetal behavioural responses to maternal voice and touch. PLoS One 10:e0129118PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  81. Maurer D, Lewis TL (1998) Overt orienting toward peripheral stimuli: normal development and underlying mechanisms. In: Richards JE (ed) Cognitive neuroscience of attention: a developmental perspective. Erlbaum, Mahwah, pp 51–102Google Scholar
  82. Melcher D, Kowler E (2001) Visual scene memory and the guidance of saccadic eye movements. Vis Res 41:3597–3611PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  83. Miller EK (2000) Organization through experience. Nat Neurosci 3:1066–1068PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  84. Miyashita Y, Hayashi T (2000) Neural representation of visual objects: encoding and top-down activation. Curr Opin Neurobiol 10:187–194PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  85. Neill WT (1977) Inhibitory and facilitatory processes in selective attention. J Exp Psychol Human 3:444–450Google Scholar
  86. Nuthmann A, Henderson JM (2010) Object-based attentional selection in scene viewing. J Vis 10:20PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  87. Papageorgiou KA, Smith TJ, Wu R, Johnson MH, Kirkham NZ, Ronald A (2014) Individual differences in infant fixation duration relate to attention and behavioral control in childhood. Psychol Sci 25:1371–1379PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  88. Piontelli A (2015) Development of normal fetal movements. Springer, MilanGoogle Scholar
  89. Prechtl HFR (2001) Prenatal and early postnatal development of human motor behavior. In: Kalverboer AF, Gramsbergen A (eds) Handbook of brain and behaviour in human development. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 415–427Google Scholar
  90. Preston KL, Finocchio DV (1983) Development of the vestibulo-ocular and optokinetic reflexes. In: Simons K (ed) Early visual development: normal and abnormal. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 80–88Google Scholar
  91. Pritchard VE, Neumann E (2004) Negative priming effects in children engaged in nonspatial tasks: evidence for early development of an intact inhibitory mechanism. Dev Psychol 40:191–203PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  92. Quinn PC, Bhatt RS (1998) Visual pop-out in young infants: convergent evidence and an extension. Infant Behav Dev 21:271–288Google Scholar
  93. Reid VM, Dunn K, Young RJ, Amu J, Donovan T, Reissland N (2017) The human fetus preferentially engages with face-like visual stimuli. Curr Biol 27:1825–1828PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  94. Richards JE (1998) Cognitive neuroscience of attention: a developmental perspective. Erlbaum, MahwahGoogle Scholar
  95. Richards JE (2001) Cortical indices of saccade planning following covert orienting in 20-week-old infants. Infancy 2:135–157Google Scholar
  96. Ross S, Dannemiller JL (1999) Color contrast, luminance contrast, and competition within exogenous orienting in 3.5-month-old infants. Infant Behav Dev 22:383–404Google Scholar
  97. Roucoux A, Culee C, Roucoux M (1983) Development of fixation and pursuit eye movements in human infants. Behav Brain Res 10:133–139PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  98. Rovee-Collier C, Bhatt RS, Chazin C (1996) Set size, novelty, and visual pop-out in infancy. J Exp Psychol Human 22:1178–1187Google Scholar
  99. Schiller PH (1985) A model for the generation of visually guided saccadic eye movements. In: Rose D, Dobson V (eds) Models of the visual cortex. Wiley, New York, pp 62–70Google Scholar
  100. Schiller PH (1988) The neural control of eye movements. In: Richards JE (ed) Cognitive neuroscience of attention: a developmental perspective. Erlbaum, Mahwah, pp 3–50Google Scholar
  101. Schiller PH (1996) On the specificity of neurons and visual areas. Behav Brain Res 76:21–35PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  102. Schlesinger M, Amso D, Johnson SP (2012) Simulating the role of visual selective attention during the development of perceptual completion. Dev Sci 15:739–752PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  103. Schneider GE (1969) Two visual systems. Science 163:895–902PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  104. Simion F, Valenza E, Umiltà C, Dalla Barba B (1995) Inhibition of return in newborns is temporo-nasal asymmetrical. Infant Behav Dev 18:189–194Google Scholar
  105. Simone PM, Mccormick EB (1999) Effect of a defining feature on negative priming across the life span. Vis Cogn 6:587–606Google Scholar
  106. Sirois S, Mareschal D (2002) Models of habituation in infancy. Trends Cogn Sci 6:293–298PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  107. Slater A (1995) Visual perception and memory at birth. In: Rovee-Collier C, Lipsitt LP (eds) Advances in infancy research, vol 9. Ablex, Norwood, pp 107–162Google Scholar
  108. Slater AM, Morison V, Rose DH (1983) Perception of shape by the new-born baby. Br J Dev Psychol 1:135–142Google Scholar
  109. Slater A, Morison V, Somers M, Mattock A, Brown E, Taylor D (1990) Newborn and older infants’ perception of partly occluded objects. Infant Behav Dev 13:33–49Google Scholar
  110. Slater AM, Brown E, Mattock A, Bornstein M (1996a) Continuity and change in habituation in the first 4 months from birth. J Reprod Infant Psychol 14:187–194Google Scholar
  111. Slater A, Johnson SP, Brown E, Badenoch M (1996b) Newborn infants’ perception of partly occluded objects. Infant Behav Dev 19:145–148Google Scholar
  112. Slone LK, Moore DS, Johnson SP (2018) Object exploration facilitates 4-month-olds’ mental rotation performance. PLoS One 13:e0200468PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  113. Soska KC, Adolph KE, Johnson SP (2010) Systems in development: motor skills acquisition facilitates 3D object completion. Dev Psychol 46:129–138PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  114. Spelke ES (1990) Principles of object perception. Cogn Sci 14:29–56Google Scholar
  115. Spelke ES, Kinzler KD (2007) Core knowledge. Dev Sci 10:89–96PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  116. Spelke ER, Breinlinger K, Macomber J, Jacobson K (1992) Origins of knowledge. Psychol Rev 99:605–632PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  117. Sperry RW (1963) Chemoaffinity in the orderly growth of nerve fiber patterns and their connections. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 50:703–710PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  118. Stiles J (2017) Principles of brain development. WIREs Cogn Sci 8:e1402.  https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1402 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  119. Stoll J, Thrun M, Nuthmann A, Einhaüser W (2015) Overt attention in natural scenes: objects dominate features. Vis Res 107:36–48PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  120. Tanaka K (1997) Mechanisms of visual object recognition: monkey and human studies. Curr Opin Neurobiol 7:523–529PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  121. Tatler BW, Hayhoe MM, Land MF, Ballard DH (2011) Eye guidance in natural vision: reinterpreting salience. J Vis 11:5PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  122. Teller DY, Movhson JA (1986) Visual development. Vis Res 26:1483–1506PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  123. Thier P, Ilg UJ (2005) The neural basis of smooth-pursuit eye movements. Curr Opin Neurobiol 15:645–652PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  124. Tipper SP (1985) The negative priming effect: inhibitory priming by ignored objects. Q J Exp Psychol 37:571–590Google Scholar
  125. Treisman A (1988) Features and objects: the fourteenth Bartlett memorial lecture. Q J Exp Psychol 40:210–237Google Scholar
  126. Treisman A, Gelade G (1980) A feature integration theory of attention. Cogn Psychol 12:97–136Google Scholar
  127. Treisman A, Gormican S (1988) Feature analysis in early vision: evidence from search asymmetries. Psychol Rev 95:15–48PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  128. Valenza E, Bulf H (2011) Early development of object unity: evidence for perceptual completion in newborns. Dev Sci 14:799–808PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  129. Valenza E, Simion F, Umiltà C (1994) Inhibition of return in newborn infants. Infant Behav Dev 17:293–302Google Scholar
  130. van Renswoude DR, Johnson SP, Raijmakers MEJ, Visser I (2016) Do infants have the horizontal bias? Infant Behav Dev 44:38–48PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  131. van Renswoude DR, Visser I, Raijmakers MEJ, Tsang T, Johnson SP (2019) Real-world scene perception in infants: what factors guide attention allocation? Revision in preparationGoogle Scholar
  132. von Hofsten C (2004) An action perspective on motor development. Trends Cogn Sci 8:266–272Google Scholar
  133. Wass SV, Smith TJ (2014) Individual differences in infant oculomotor behavior during the viewing of complex naturalistic scenes. Infancy 19:352–384PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  134. Wattam-Bell J (1996) Visual motion processing in 1-month-old infants: habituation experiments. Vis Res 36:1679–1685Google Scholar
  135. Winkler KC, Williams RW, Rakic P (1990) Photoreceptor mosaic: number and distribution of rods and cones in the rhesus monkey retina. J Comp Neurol 297:499–508Google Scholar
  136. Wong ROL (1999) Retinal waves and visual system development. Annu Rev Neurosci 22:29–47Google Scholar
  137. Xu J, Jiang M, Wang S, Kankanhalli MS, Zhao Q (2014) Predicting human gaze beyond pixels. J Vis 14:28–28Google Scholar
  138. Zenger B, Braun J, Koch C (2000) Attentional effects on contrast detection in the presence of surround masks. Vis Res 40:3717–3724Google Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Department of PsychologyUCLALos AngelesUSA

Personalised recommendations

Cite chapter

Buy options