Abstract
This chapter gives an idea of the notion of the tribe; group formation within a tribe and assertion of identity with Kuki-Chin ethnic group as case study. The Kuki-Chin group which evolved into different identical subgroups in a process of fission over time developed their dialects and Bible was translated into different Kuki-Chin dialects, thereby acting as a disintegrating agent. In unequivocal terms, the chapter holds Bible translation into the dialect of individual subgroups responsible for reinforcing the subgroup divisions within the Kuki-Chin group. Thus, the chapter traces contemporary ethnic issues in Kuki-Chin group to the historical event of Bible translation during colonial period. The chapter argues that the Bible translation into different dialects reinforced the variations and resulted in the assertion of micro group identity on the basis of such variations. The chapter further describes the adverse impact of this translation on tradition in general and on traditional calendar in particular.
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Notes
- 1.
By Zo the author means all the Kuki-Chin linguistic groups, about whom we study in this paper. Local researchers and writers are sharply divided into two schools on the naming of the linguistic group we study here. One school of thought rejects Kuki-Chin term on the ground of its outside origin, while others opine that the people are known as Kuki-Chin throughout our history.
- 2.
From Personal file of Professor Lal Dena.
- 3.
Jishnu Barua’s MSS. Administrative History of Colonial Northeast India (1826–1947), personal copy, p. 3.
- 4.
The word ‘Bible’ is derived from ‘Biblion’ which means books. It consists of 66 books altogether and is broadly divided into two – Old Testament (39 books) and New Testament (27 books). Translation originated from the Latin prefix ‘trans’ which means to ‘cross from one side to the other’.
- 5.
In India, languages are broadly divided into four groups: Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic (Munda) and Tibeto-Burmese.
- 6.
The Meitei Bible translation indicates two apparent motives – a strong tendency to preach Christianity in Manipur and to establish link between the colonial government and foreign missionaries.
- 7.
Hmar Bible translators: H. S. Thanglung, H.L.Sela and others under the supervision of Paul Rostad of Northeast India General Mission at Churchandpur. The Old Testament (OT) and Revised New Testament (NT) in Hmar dialect have been translated by H.S. Thanglung, H.L. Sela, N. Nghingloa, Rochung Pudaite, Hrilrokhum Thiek, Sumkung and Awikung.
- 8.
Sang Ling assisted them while translating the Bible.
- 9.
Paite Bible translators: T.C. Tiankham,Negzachin, Vungthawn, Chinlang and Thangkhawgin.
- 10.
According to Joshua, Project Anal is found only in India, and the population is estimated to be 27,000. For secondary language, about 100 people can speak Hindi, English (60), Thadou (50), Inpui (30), Tangkhul (20), Gangte (20), Vaiphei (20) and Paite (10). They are now New Naga despite having a deep-rooted cultural traits with other Kuki-Chin of Indo-Myanmar.
- 11.
Interview of Khupril Rangkhol (40 years), currently a member of BSI, Shillong, on 28 August 2016, at Guwahati.
- 12.
Interview of Rangkhol Pastor, currently a member of BSI, Shillong, during his visit to Kuki Worship Service at Guwahati on several occasions.
- 13.
E-PAO; Online News; Manipur.
- 14.
J. Doungel, Professor and Head, Department of Political Science, Mizoram University, informed us that Ralte is a mix language comprising Hmar, Thadou, Lusei, etc. At present it is a dialect of the elders, and the youngsters have started speaking Lusei. He also estimated the Ralte speakers to be 50,000 (fifty thousand). Based on interview with him on several occasions.
- 15.
Names of the week: Sunday, Choldoni (rest); Monday, Khomlahni (collection of a post); Tuesday, Julhohni (brewing wine); Wednesday, Ahkangthani (sacrifice of blameless/pure white cock); Thursday, Buhjalni (day of meditation by laying); Friday, Belpengkhopni (pot collection) and Saturday, Molsellhani (the day of releasing terracotta mithun). The names are taken from HSO (Haokip Students’ Organization) calendar, 1999.
- 16.
Publication of the Bible by BSI was motivated by profit and was bound by ‘Demand and Supply Law’ as applied in all other manufacturing industries or units.
- 17.
Langrong might have been one of the old Kuki groups mentioned by Grierson (2006:511).
- 18.
Ngulhao Thom Song translated the New Testament (27 books of the Bible) under the supervision of Dr. Crozier and Mrs. Mabel Borswoth Crozier, missionaries posted at Kangpokpi, Sadar Hills Manipur. Credit of translating the Old Testament goes to Tongkhojang Lunkim of the Kuki Baptist Convention, now Administrative Secretary of the Kuki Christian Council, Dewlahland, Imphal, Manipur. Bible Translation in Thadou was undertaken by the Thadou Baptist Association by constituting a Committee under the Banner of Thadou Christian Literature. Translators of the entire Bible of King James Version include S.L. Palal, Vumkam Kipgen, SongkhohaoKigen, Letkhoseh, ThangpuKipgen, SeikholamSitlhou, D. Singson and Thangkholet Kipgen. According to S. Kipgen, Bible Society of India (BSI) put restriction on publication of it due to conflict over the nomenclature of the dialects – Thadou, Thadou-Kuki and Kuki. It was in 2002 that Thadou Baptist Association and BSI came to terms, and after the recommendation of the Manipur Baptist Convention, it was published in 2008. For details see Kipgen, 2012.
- 19.
According to Hat Zaw of New Lamka, Paite dialect is an offshoot of the Teddim Chin; the Paite mentioned it in one of their memorandums submitted to the Prime Minister of India in the 1960s demanding creation of Chin State in Manipur.
- 20.
Legal recognition refers to inclusion of name of communities to the list of Scheduled Tribes of the Constitution of India.
- 21.
Mention may be made of Paite National Council, Vaiphei National Organization, Simte National Organization and United Zou Organization, Kuki National Assembly, etc.
- 22.
T.C. Tainkham was the first speaker of Manipur Assembly; S.L. Lunneh who was involved in Thadou Bible and Literature works also to become an elected member in Manipur Assembly in his later days. Till 1951, there were three categories of tribes in Manipur – Any Kuki, Any Naga and Any Lusei; but in 1956, notification of Scheduled Tribe in Manipur, Any-Kuki, was further split into more than 20 tribes and Any Naga into 8 tribes; but Any Lusei (now Mizo) remained the same. After splitting up some of the old Kuki tribes become New Naga despite their unbreakable cultural traits and tenets with their cognate tribes and clans.
- 23.
Grierson (2006:375) classified Any group of Nagas of Manipur into two – Naga-Kuki group and Naga Bodo group. The former includes Mao, Maram, Mayangkhang, Koireng, Luhupa/Tangkhul and Maring.
- 24.
The writer of this paper was one of the participants at the national level workshop organized by the CIIL, Mysore at Manipur University, Imphal.
- 25.
Interview of Irine (24) Halflong N.C Hills on 1 September 2016.
- 26.
Kolhen, a village in Churachandpur, belongs to Kipgen clans since a long past; in the 1970s they merged to Vaiphei tribe; similarly Baite who belongs to Thadou merged to Vaiphei; tribe or clan mobility can be seen even today.
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Haokip, D.L. (2020). Bible Translation in Kuki-Chin of Indo-Myanmar and Bangladesh: A Historical Analysis. In: Behera, M. (eds) Tribal Studies in India. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9026-6_7
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