Skip to main content

Infectious Intermediate, Posterior, and Panuveitis

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Uveitis

Part of the book series: Current Practices in Ophthalmology ((CUPROP))

  • 859 Accesses

Abstract

The aim of this chapter is to discuss the microbiology, epidemiology, clinical presentation, and updates on management of a range of commonly encountered infectious causes of intermediate, posterior, and panuveitis.

We discuss viruses including cytomegalovirus, herpes zoster and simplex virus, and West Nile virus and parasites including toxoplasmosis, toxocariasis, diffuse unilateral subacute neuroretinitis, and cysticercosis. Syphilis, tuberculosis, tick-borne disease, and fungal and infectious bacterial endophthalmitis are also described.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Staras SAS, Dollard SC, Radford KW, Flanders WD, Pass RF, Cannon MJ. Seroprevalence of cytomegalovirus infection in the United States, 1988–1994. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43(9):1143–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Cannon MJ, Schmid DS, Hyde TB. Review of cytomegalovirus seroprevalence and demographic characteristics associated with infection. Rev Med Virol. 2010;20(4):202–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Kenneson A, Cannon MJ. Review and meta-analysis of the epidemiology of congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection. Rev Med Virol. 2007;17(4):253–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Jabs DA, Van Natta ML, Thorne JE, Weinberg DV, Meredith TA, Kuppermann BD, et al. Course of cytomegalovirus retinitis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: 1. Retinitis progression. Ophthalmology. 2004;111(12):2224–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Port AD, Orlin A, Kiss S, Patel S, D’Amico DJ, Gupta MP. Cytomegalovirus retinitis: a review. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2017;33(4):224–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Jeon S, Lee WK, Lee Y, Lee DG, Lee JW. Risk factors for cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with cytomegalovirus viremia after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Ophthalmology. 2012;119(9):1892–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Sugar EA, Jabs DA, Ahuja A, Thorne JE, Danis RP, Meinert CL, et al. Incidence of cytomegalovirus retinitis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2012;153(6):1016–1024.e5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Jabs DA, Van Natta ML, Holbrook JT, Kempen JH, Meinert CL, Davis MD, et al. Longitudinal study of the ocular complications of AIDS: 1. Ocular diagnoses at enrollment. Ophthalmology. 2007;114(4):780–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Lee JH, Agarwal A, Mahendradas P, Lee CS, Gupta V, Pavesio CE, et al. Viral posterior uveitis. Surv Ophthalmol. 2017;62(4):404–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Jabs DA, Van Natta ML, Thorne JE, Weinberg DV, Meredith TA, Kuppermann BD, et al. Course of cytomegalovirus retinitis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: 2. Second eye involvement and retinal detachment. Ophthalmology. 2004;111(12):2232–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Vrabec TR. Posterior segment manifestations of HIV/AIDS. Surv Ophthalmol. 2004;49(2):131–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Iu LP, Fan MC, Lau JK, Chan TS, Kwong Y-L, Wong IY. Long-term follow-up of cytomegalovirus retinitis in non-HIV immunocompromised patients: clinical features and visual prognosis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2016;165:145–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Scheepers MA, Lecuona KA, Rogers G, Bunce C, Corcoran C, Michaelides M. The value of routine polymerase chain reaction analysis of intraocular fluid specimens in the diagnosis of infectious posterior uveitis. Scientific World Journal. 2013;2013:545149.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Arevalo JF, Garcia RA, Mendoza AJ. High-dose (5000-microg) intravitreal ganciclovir combined with highly active antiretroviral therapy for cytomegalovirus retinitis in HIV-infected patients in Venezuela. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2005;15(5):610–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Hoang QV, Simon DM, Kumar GN, Oh F, Goldstein DA. Recurrent CMV retinitis in a non-HIV patient with drug-resistant CMV. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2010;248(5):737–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Jabs DA, Ahuja A, Van Natta M, Lyon A, Srivastava S, Gangaputra S, et al. Course of cytomegalovirus retinitis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: five-year outcomes. Ophthalmology. 2010;117(11):2152–61.e1-2

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Muthiah MN, Michaelides M, Child CS, Mitchell SM. Acute retinal necrosis: a national population-based study to assess the incidence, methods of diagnosis, treatment strategies and outcomes in the UK. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91(11):1452–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Hillenkamp J, Nölle B, Bruns C, Rautenberg P, Fickenscher H, Roider J. Acute retinal necrosis: clinical features, early vitrectomy, and outcomes. Ophthalmology. 2009;116(10):1971–1975.e2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Lau CH, Missotten T, Salzmann J, Lightman SL. Acute retinal necrosis features, management, and outcomes. Ophthalmology. 2007;114(4):756–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Ganatra JB, Chandler D, Santos C, Kuppermann B, Margolis TP. Viral causes of the acute retinal necrosis syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;129(2):166–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Cochrane TF, Silvestri G, McDowell C, Foot B, McAvoy CE. Acute retinal necrosis in the United Kingdom: results of a prospective surveillance study. Eye (Lond). 2012;26(3):370–7. quiz 378

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Holland GN. Standard diagnostic criteria for the acute retinal necrosis syndrome. Executive Committee of the American Uveitis Society. Am J Ophthalmol. 1994;117(5):663–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Engstrom RE, Holland GN, Margolis TP, Muccioli C, Lindley JI, Belfort R, et al. The progressive outer retinal necrosis syndrome. A variant of necrotizing herpetic retinopathy in patients with AIDS. Ophthalmology. 1994;101(9):1488–502.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Guex-Crosier Y, Rochat C, Herbort CP. Necrotizing herpetic retinopathies. A spectrum of herpes virus-induced diseases determined by the immune state of the host. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 1997;5(4):259–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Gariano RF, Berreen JP, Cooney EL. Progressive outer retinal necrosis and acute retinal necrosis in fellow eyes of a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;132(3):421–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Chawla R, Tripathy K, Gogia V, Venkatesh P. Progressive outer retinal necrosis-like retinitis in immunocompetent hosts. BMJ Case Rep. 2016;2016

    Google Scholar 

  27. Schoenberger SD, Kim SJ, Thorne JE, Mruthyunjaya P, Yeh S, Bakri SJ, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of acute retinal necrosis: a report by the American Academy of Ophthalmology. Ophthalmology. 2017;124(3):382–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Höglund M, Ljungman P, Weller S. Comparable aciclovir exposures produced by oral valaciclovir and intravenous aciclovir in immunocompromised cancer patients. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2001;47(6):855–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Wong R, Pavesio CE, Laidlaw DAH, Williamson TH, Graham EM, Stanford MR. Acute retinal necrosis: the effects of intravitreal foscarnet and virus type on outcome. Ophthalmology. 2010;117(3):556–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Yeh S, Suhler EB, Smith JR, Bruce B, Fahle G, Bailey ST, et al. Combination systemic and intravitreal antiviral therapy in the management of acute retinal necrosis syndrome. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina. 2014;45(5):399–407.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Bains HS, Jampol LM, Caughron MC, Parnell JR. Vitritis and chorioretinitis in a patient with West Nile virus infection. Arch Ophthalmol. 2003;121(2):205–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Hayes EB, Sejvar JJ, Zaki SR, Lanciotti RS, Bode AV, Campbell GL. Virology, pathology, and clinical manifestations of West Nile virus disease. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11(8):1174–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Khairallah M, Ben Yahia S, Ladjimi A, Zeghidi H, Ben Romdhane F, Besbes L, et al. Chorioretinal involvement in patients with West Nile virus infection. Ophthalmology. 2004;111(11):2065–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Khairallah M, Ben Yahia S, Attia S, Zaouali S, Ladjimi A, Messaoud R. Linear pattern of West Nile virus-associated chorioretinitis is related to retinal nerve fibres organization. Eye (Lond). 2007;21(7):952–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Holland GN. Ocular toxoplasmosis: a global reassessment. Part I: epidemiology and course of disease. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;136(6):973–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Furtado JM, Winthrop KL, Butler NJ, Smith JR. Ocular toxoplasmosis I: parasitology, epidemiology and public health. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2013;41(1):82–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Butler NJ, Furtado JM, Winthrop KL, Smith JR. Ocular toxoplasmosis II: clinical features, pathology and management. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2013;41(1):95–108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Holland GN. Ocular toxoplasmosis: a global reassessment. Part II: disease manifestations and management. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;137(1):1–17.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Friedmann CT, Knox DL. Variations in recurrent active toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1969;81(4):481–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Bosch-Driessen LEH, Berendschot TTJM, Ongkosuwito JV, Rothova A. Ocular toxoplasmosis: clinical features and prognosis of 154 patients. Ophthalmology. 2002;109(5):869–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Elkins BS, Holland GN, Opremcak EM, Dunn JP, Jabs DA, Johnston WH, et al. Ocular toxoplasmosis misdiagnosed as cytomegalovirus retinopathy in immunocompromised patients. Ophthalmology. 1994;101(3):499–507.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Harper TW, Miller D, Schiffman JC, Davis JL. Polymerase chain reaction analysis of aqueous and vitreous specimens in the diagnosis of posterior segment infectious uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;147(1):140–7.e2

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Kim SJ, Scott IU, Brown GC, Brown MM, Ho AC, Ip MS, et al. Interventions for toxoplasma retinochoroiditis: a report by the American Academy of Ophthalmology. Ophthalmology. 2013;120(2):371–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Schantz PM, Glickman LT. Toxocaral visceral larva migrans. N Engl J Med. 1978;298(8):436–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Ahn SJ, Woo SJ, Jin Y, Chang Y-S, Kim TW, Ahn J, et al. Clinical features and course of ocular toxocariasis in adults. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8(6):e2938.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Padhi TR, Das S, Sharma S, Rath S, Rath S, Tripathy D, et al. Ocular parasitoses: a comprehensive review. Surv Ophthalmol. 2017;62(2):161–89.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Sabrosa NA, de Souza EC. Nematode infections of the eye: toxocariasis and diffuse unilateral subacute neuroretinitis. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2001;12(6):450–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Shields JA. Ocular toxocariasis. A review. Surv Ophthalmol. 1984;28(5):361–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Despreaux R, Fardeau C, Touhami S, Brasnu E, Champion E, Paris L, et al. Ocular toxocariasis: clinical features and long-term visual outcomes in adult patients. Am J Ophthalmol. 2016;166:162–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Wang ZJ, Zhou M, Cao WJ, Ji J, Bi YW, Huang X, et al. Evaluation of the Goldmann-Witmer coefficient in the immunological diagnosis of ocular toxocariasis. Acta Trop. 2016;158:20–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Casella AMB, Farah ME, de SEC, Belfort R, Oguido APMT. Retinal nerve fiber layer atrophy as relevant feature for diffuse unilateral subacute neuroretinitis (DUSN): case series. Arq Bras Oftalmol. 2010;73(2):182–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Gass JD, Braunstein RA. Further observations concerning the diffuse unilateral subacute neuroretinitis syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol. 1983;101(11):1689–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Dhiman R, Devi S, Duraipandi K, Chandra P, Vanathi M, Tandon R, et al. Cysticercosis of the eye. Int J Ophthalmol. 2017;10(8):1319–24.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Ganesh SK, Priyanka. Analysis of clinical profile, investigation, and management of ocular cysticercosis seen at a tertiary referral Centre. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2018;26:1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Syphilis [Internet]. Center for Disease Control and Prevention; 2017. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/std/stats16/syphilis.htm

  56. Kiss S, Damico FM, Young LH. Ocular manifestations and treatment of syphilis. Semin Ophthalmol. 2005;20(3):161–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Aldave AJ, King JA, Cunningham ET. Ocular syphilis. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2001;12(6):433–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Golden MR, Marra CM, Holmes KK. Update on syphilis: resurgence of an old problem. JAMA. 2003;290(11):1510–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Browning DJ. Posterior segment manifestations of active ocular syphilis, their response to a neurosyphilis regimen of penicillin therapy, and the influence of human immunodeficiency virus status on response. Ophthalmology. 2000;107(11):2015–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Hoogewoud F, Frumholtz L, Loubet P, Charlier C, Blanche P, Lebeaux D, et al. Prognostic factors in syphilitic uveitis. Ophthalmology. 2017;124(12):1808–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Moradi A, Salek S, Daniel E, Gangaputra S, Ostheimer TA, Burkholder BM, et al. Clinical features and incidence rates of ocular complications in patients with ocular syphilis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2015;159(2):334–43.e1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Villanueva AV, Sahouri MJ, Ormerod LD, Puklin JE, Reyes MP. Posterior uveitis in patients with positive serology for syphilis. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30(3):479–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Bakhsh SR, Ali MH, Bhat P. Chorioretinal lesions and symptoms of elevated intracranial pressure. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2017;135(8):889–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Gass JD, Braunstein RA, Chenoweth RG. Acute syphilitic posterior placoid chorioretinitis. Ophthalmology. 1990;97(10):1288–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Eandi CM, Neri P, Adelman RA, Yannuzzi LA, Cunningham ET, International Syphilis Study Group. Acute syphilitic posterior placoid chorioretinitis: report of a case series and comprehensive review of the literature. Retina. 2012;32(9):1915–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Pichi F, Ciardella AP, Cunningham ET, Morara M, Veronese C, Jumper JM, et al. Spectral domain optical coherence tomography findings in patients with acute syphilitic posterior placoid chorioretinopathy. Retina. 2014;34(2):373–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Dunseth CD, Ford BA, Krasowski MD. Traditional versus reverse syphilis algorithms: a comparison at a large academic medical center. Pract Lab Med. 2017;8:52–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Gupta V, Gupta A, Rao NA. Intraocular tuberculosis – an update. Surv Ophthalmol. 2007;52(6):561–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. World Health Organization. Global tuberculosis report 2017. S.l.: World Health Organization; 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Raja H, Starr MR, Bakri SJ. Ocular manifestations of tick-borne diseases. Surv Ophthalmol. 2016;61(6):726–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Sathiamoorthi S, Smith WM. The eye and tick-borne disease in the United States. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2016;27(6):530–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Vannier E, Krause PJ. Human babesiosis. N Engl J Med. 2012;366(25):2397–407.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Romero JR, Simonsen KA. Powassan encephalitis and Colorado tick fever. Infect Dis Clin N Am. 2008;22(3):545–59, x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. McFee RB, Bush L, Vazquez-Pertejo MT. Tick borne illness—Rocky mountain spotted fever. Dis Mon. 2018;64(5):185–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Relhan N, Forster RK, Flynn HW. Endophthalmitis: then and now. Am J Ophthalmol. 2018;187:xx–xxvii.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Patel AV, Young LH. Endogenous endophthalmitis. In: Durand M, Miller J, Young L, editors. Endophthalmitis. New York, NY: Springer; 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Jackson TL, Paraskevopoulos T, Georgalas I. Systematic review of 342 cases of endogenous bacterial endophthalmitis. Surv Ophthalmol. 2014;59(6):627–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Jackson TL, Eykyn SJ, Graham EM, Stanford MR. Endogenous bacterial endophthalmitis: a 17-year prospective series and review of 267 reported cases. Surv Ophthalmol. 2003;48(4):403–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Gregori NZ, Flynn HW, Schwartz SG, Rosenfeld PJ, Vaziri K, Moshfeghi AA, et al. Current infectious endophthalmitis rates after intravitreal injections of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor agents and outcomes of treatment. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina. 2015;46(6):643–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Avery RL, Bakri SJ, Blumenkranz MS, Brucker AJ, Cunningham ET, DʼAmico DJ, et al. Intravitreal injection technique and monitoring: updated guidelines of an expert panel. Retina. 2014;34(Suppl 12):S1–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Cao H, Zhang L, Li L, Lo S. Risk factors for acute endophthalmitis following cataract surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2013;8(8):e71731.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Rahmani S, Eliott D. Postoperative Endophthalmitis: a review of risk factors, prophylaxis, incidence, microbiology, treatment, and outcomes. Semin Ophthalmol. 2018;33(1):95–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Gower EW, Lindsley K, Tulenko SE, Nanji AA, Leyngold I, McDonnell PJ. Perioperative antibiotics for prevention of acute endophthalmitis after cataract surgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;2:CD006364.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Haripriya A, Chang DF, Ravindran RD. Endophthalmitis reduction with Intracameral Moxifloxacin prophylaxis: analysis of 600 000 surgeries. Ophthalmology. 2017;124(6):768–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Jabbarvand M, Hashemian H, Khodaparast M, Jouhari M, Tabatabaei A, Rezaei S. Endophthalmitis occurring after cataract surgery: outcomes of more than 480 000 cataract surgeries, epidemiologic features, and risk factors. Ophthalmology. 2016;123(2):295–301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Endophthalmitis Study Group, European Society of Cataract & Refractive Surgeons. Prophylaxis of postoperative endophthalmitis following cataract surgery: results of the ESCRS multicenter study and identification of risk factors. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2007;33(6):978–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Creuzot-Garcher C, Benzenine E, Mariet A-S, de Lazzer A, Chiquet C, Bron AM, et al. Incidence of acute postoperative Endophthalmitis after cataract surgery: a Nationwide study in France from 2005 to 2014. Ophthalmology. 2016;123(7):1414–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Han DP, Wisniewski SR, Wilson LA, Barza M, Vine AK, Doft BH, et al. Spectrum and susceptibilities of microbiologic isolates in the Endophthalmitis Vitrectomy Study. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996;122(1):1–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Vaziri K, Kishor K, Schwartz SG, Maharaj AS, Moshfeghi DM, Moshfeghi AA, et al. Incidence of bleb-associated endophthalmitis in the United States. Clin Ophthalmol. 2015;9:317–22.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  90. Zheng CX, Moster MR, Khan MA, Chiang A, Garg SJ, Dai Y, et al. Infectious endophthalmitis after glaucoma drainage implant surgery: clinical features, microbial spectrum, and outcomes. Retina. 2017;37(6):1160–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Park JC, Ramasamy B, Shaw S, Prasad S, Ling RHL. A prospective and nationwide study investigating endophthalmitis following pars plana vitrectomy: incidence and risk factors. Br J Ophthalmol. 2014;98(4):529–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Clarke B, Williamson T, Gini G, Gupta B. Management of bacterial postoperative endophthalmitis and the role of vitrectomy. Surv Ophthalmol. 2018;63(5):677–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Kim CH, Chen MF, Coleman AL. Adjunctive steroid therapy versus antibiotics alone for acute endophthalmitis after intraocular procedure. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;2:CD012131.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Endophthalmitis Study Group, European Society of Cataract & Refractive Surgeons. Results of the Endophthalmitis Vitrectomy study. A randomized trial of immediate vitrectomy and of intravenous antibiotics for the treatment of postoperative bacterial endophthalmitis. Endophthalmitis Vitrectomy Study Group. Arch Ophthalmol. 1995;113(12):1479–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Shah CP, McKey J, Spirn MJ, Maguire J. Ocular candidiasis: a review. Br J Ophthalmol. 2008;92(4):466–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Adam MK, Vahedi S, Nichols MM, Fintelmann RE, Keenan JD, Garg SJ, et al. Inpatient ophthalmology consultation for Fungemia: prevalence of ocular involvement and necessity of Funduscopic screening. Am J Ophthalmol. 2015;160(5):1078–83.e2

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Vinikoor MJ, Zoghby J, Cohen KL, Tucker JD. Do all candidemic patients need an ophthalmic examination? Int J Infect Dis. 2013;17(3):e146–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Oude Lashof AML, Rothova A, Sobel JD, Ruhnke M, Pappas PG, Viscoli C, et al. Ocular manifestations of candidemia. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53(3):262–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Khalid A, Clough LA, Symons RCA, Mahnken JD, Dong L, Eid AJ. Incidence and clinical predictors of ocular candidiasis in patients with Candida fungemia. Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis. 2014;2014:650235.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  100. Dozier CC, Tarantola RM, Jiramongkolchai K, Donahue SP. Fungal eye disease at a tertiary care center: the utility of routine inpatient consultation. Ophthalmology. 2011;118(8):1671–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Diaz RI, Sigler EJ, Rafieetary MR, Calzada JI. Ocular histoplasmosis syndrome. Surv Ophthalmol. 2015;60(4):279–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Thuruthumaly C, Yee DC, Rao PK. Presumed ocular histoplasmosis. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2014;25(6):508–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Conflict of Interest: No conflicting relationship exists for any author.

Financial Support: NIH Core Grant for Vision Research EY05722 and the Unrestricted RPB Grant from Research to Prevent Blindness Inc. (both to Duke University Department of Ophthalmology).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Dilraj S. Grewal .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Ali, M.H., Zhang, W., Grewal, D.S. (2020). Infectious Intermediate, Posterior, and Panuveitis. In: Lin, P. (eds) Uveitis . Current Practices in Ophthalmology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0331-3_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0331-3_4

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore

  • Print ISBN: 978-981-15-0330-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-981-15-0331-3

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics