Abstract
Liberalisation, economic restructuring and institutional reforms have led to the emergence of new forms of work and work cultures along with an emergent workforce. Developing countries like India during the 1990s introduced new economic reforms that opened up the economy to the forces of free market where the flow of goods, capital and labour were subjected to minimal governmental control. However, this led to an increased market competition, which in turn, influenced the labour relations and the traditional work/professions began to face changes. The case of goldsmiths migrating from Medinipur illustrates the process of transformation of labour. The intra-generational occupational mobility of the artisans tells us interesting stories of inter-relationship between work, mobility and enterprise. Drawing on a multi-sited ethnography of the informal gold jewellery manufacturing sector, the study highlights how the rapid social and economic changes have initiated the emergence of a new workforce. The mobility of the goldsmiths and their craftsmanship captures their entrepreneurial activity. Surveying the ‘artisanal guild’ across three states in India, we found that along with increasing demand for machine-made jewellery and entry of corporates, the state regulations on gold trade also posed several challenges for the artisan community. The paper focuses on the importance of multi-sited ethnography to understand how the changing market along with continuous regulations brought transformation in the traditional occupation and influenced the mobility of the artisans.
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- 1.
Appadurai (1988) notes that things have no meanings apart from those that human transactions, attributions and motivations endow them.
- 2.
Goldsmithing which was earlier a caste-based occupation became a non-caste or rather village network-based occupation. But till today, at the goldsmithing units the apprentices are given housing, food, clothes and trained in the skill by their patron. Once he learns the skills, he becomes a journeyman (when he is paid according to his work) and finally when he masters the skill, he becomes a master karigar. When the master karigar starts his own workshop and employs journeymen and apprentices under him, he becomes a master craftsman. It is the master craftsman who does most of the dealings.
- 3.
Roy (1996) in the context of the impact of foreign trade on crafts such as textiles pointed out that although the impact of foreign trade was crucial, there were also examples where the effect of trade was minor or indirect on the artisans. The artisans neither faced significant competition from imported goods nor were reduced to fodder for metropolitan industrialisation. They changed profoundly. Integrated markets and intra-craft competition also exposed an inherent weakness of craftsmanship. Beyond offering new opportunities, globalisation was potentially transformative in many other ways.
- 4.
The Act did not allow a certified goldsmith to receive more than 100 g of standard gold for manufacturing jewellery and to possess a stock of more than 300 g of primary gold. Further, according to the act certified goldsmiths could buy gold bars from a licensed refiner or dealer and receive gold for manufacturing purposes from a licensed dealer or the general public. They could not engage more than one hired labour, who would assist him but not make, manufacture, prepare, repair or process any article or ornament. Also refer to Harakchand Ratanchand Banthia … vs Union of India And Ors for an overview about the GCA of 1968.
- 5.
Hart (2006) rightly mentions that every attempt by the state is marked by the relation of ‘negation’ where some of the activities may break the law, through a breach of health and safety regulations, tax evasion and smuggling, the use of child labour or selling without a licence. Rule-breaking takes place both within bureaucracy and outside it.
- 6.
As per bullion analyst’s estimates whereas Mumbai had about 150 jewellery shops located around Zaveri Bazar in South of Mumbai during the days of the GCA 1968, in 2014 every neighbourhood had a jewellery showroom.
- 7.
A similar excise tax which was imposed in 2012, according to the jewellers, led to a lot of ‘harassment’ and ‘inspector raj’. Later on the tax was striked off after protest by the jewellers for around 21 days.
- 8.
No-work or lack of work are mostly the outcome of regulations imposed on gold trade, low market demand due to off-season, crop failures, tax impositions or low growth rate.
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Kanungo, S., Chakrabarti, A. (2020). A Sociological Study of Work, Mobility and Enterprise Among the Bengali Goldsmiths of India: A Multi-sited Ethnography. In: Majumdar, S., Reji, E. (eds) Methodological Issues in Social Entrepreneurship Knowledge and Practice. Springer Proceedings in Business and Economics. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9769-1_6
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