Abstract
China has managed to retain, in spirit, the concept of Tianxia in its grand unity system since the Qin dynasty. Wars for conquest among tribes and nations in ancient China were fought for cultural resources rather than economic or territorial reasons. The cultural resources of the Central Plains are unrivaled in the spiritual world they have produced and encapsulated in unique ideographic writings, which have drawn tribes and nations into a whirlpool of competition for the throne. The constructs of compatibility and coexistence in the Tianxia concept inherited from the Zhou dynasty assure a sharable world for all, conquerors and the conquered alike. Furthermore, the succession myth, a political theology created by the Tianxia concept, became a traditional narrative repeated by all rulers. As a result, China has developed into a world-patterned country with various integrated ethnicities and cultures in an ingenious institutional form, that of one country with multiple systems.
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- 1.
The concept of grand unity comes from the section of the first year of Lord Yin in Gongyang Zhuan of Chunqiu, stating: “the first year Spring of the King, the first month. What is the first year? It is the year the King assumes his throne. What is spring? It is the beginning of a year. Who was the King? It was King Wen. Why should it mention the King first and then the first month? Because it is the King who puts in place the first month. Why mention the king putting in place the first month? It is the Grand Unity.” Grand Unity, in its original form, refers to this unification. However, the unity of calendars implies political unity. Dong Zhongshu, being the first one to use the grand unity as a political concept, used to say that “Grand Unity implied in Chunqiu is a constant principle to be followed throughout the world, and a universally accepted sense from the antiquity up to now” (Chapter 26 of Dong Zhongshu Zhuan in Han Shu). But history does not bear this out because the system of Grand Unity was not invented before the Qin dynasty.
- 2.
It was used to describe the legendary Huang Di’s successful efforts to gather peoples from all places to fight winning wars against opponents. It first appeared in the biographic chapter on Five Kings of Shiji by Sima Qian (145 bce–87 bce?).
- 3.
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Schelling, Thomas. (2011). The Strategy of Conflict. Translated by Zhao, Hua et al. Beijing: Huaxia Press, pp. 48–51.
- 5.
Sima Qian, in the biographic chapter on Five Kings of Shiji, states: Huang Di “moved around freely without a permanent residence, using soldiers as guards for his accompanying army’s camping site.” It is clear that Huang Di was the head of a nomadic tribe. It also shows that there were, at least, some nomadic tribes residing in the Yellow River Valley. Huang Di’s tribe roamed in areas bordering Mongol regions in the north, and was connected in the west with Shangxi and Shang Gan regions. Therefore, Huang Di’s tribe might either be the latter-day Bei Di (uncivilized people in the north) or Xi Rong (uncivilized people in the west).
- 6.
In early days, China was sparsely populated by people but had an abundance of animals. Hence, hunting was a common way of life for peoples from the four corners. The earliest agricultural and nomadic activities were low in efficiency, and therefore it was impossible for this to become a sustainable way of life. High efficiency agricultural life must rely on ox-plowing, which started in the Spring and Autumn period: we know that Lord Wu Ling of Zhao only realized the advantage of nomadic riding and archery in the Warring States period. See Xu, Zhongshu. (2015). Gu Qiwuzhong de Gudai Wenhua Zhidu (Ancient Cultural Systems in the Ancient Utensils). The Commercial Press, pp. 1–124, 374–380.
- 7.
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- 8.
For example, today’s so-called “traditional costumes” are in fact those of the Manchu nationality’s style, and “traditional music instruments” are actually imported from the western regions. The representative songs of every nationality have also become the classical songs shared by all ethnic groups. So goes every other aspect of a culture.
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- 11.
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- 12.
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- 15.
Flexible control was a locally adaptable system by the dynasty to control border regions. Its specific policy was different for different locales and times. Its basic concept was to realize regional autonomy under the control of the central government. Key fortresses were usually garrisoned by armies dispatched by the central government, but they were not to interfere with local traditional life and its way of management. Du You said: “when virtues reach wild and faraway places, all uncivilized peoples are consequently transformed. People are then governed according to who they are, and their normal expectations are also met in life. This way of governing is called flexible control.” [Du, You. (1988). Chapter 171, Preface to Prefecture Systems in Tong Dian. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company.]
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Zhao, T. (2019). A World-Pattern State: A Whirlpool Formula of China. In: Redefining A Philosophy for World Governance. Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture. Palgrave Pivot, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5971-2_2
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