Abstract
Tianxia is a theory about world politics invented about three thousand years ago during the Zhou dynasty. It was designed to solve the issue of a small state governing many large ones, which Zhou found itself confronted with after a surprise victory. Zhou took the internalization approach to solve the issue through the integration of all external existences into its Tianxia system, a concept that highlights compatibility and coexistence. Tianxia applied relational, rather than individual, rationality in solving conflicts between various interests, and thus transformed Zhou politics into a world politics that was all inclusive and above national calculations. Conceptualized as conflating the three worlds of geography, socio-psychology and politics, the world of Tianxia is infinitely expansive, appeals to all people’s expectations and reflects the “Way of Heaven” in its political institutions. Hence, the Tianxia system, a system of world politics, enabled Zhou to establish its governance for about 800 years.
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- 1.
Yanyuan chapter in the Analects.
- 2.
Yiji chapter in Shangshu states: “(The king’s virtue) shines on every place of Tianxia, reaching all common people in far-away seas and corners, and making masses in ten thousand states virtuous.” Qi Ce in Zhanguoce (Strategies of the Warring States) states: “In King Yu’s time of antiquity, there were ten thousand states of Tianxia.”
- 3.
Archeological evidence shows that the earliest mature written language in China that has been excavated existed about 3500 years ago. So a reasonable estimation of a mature writing system in China would be no earlier than 4000 years ago.
- 4.
Wang, Guowei (2001), Guan Tang Ji Ling: Yin Zhou Zhi Du Luan [A Collection of Essays from the Viewing Hall: On Yin Zhou Systems], He Bei Education Press, p. 296.
- 5.
Mushi and Dahao in Shangshu.
- 6.
Yaodian in Shangshu.
- 7.
Yaodian and Shundian in Shangshu.
- 8.
According to Zhou Benji in Shiji (Records of the Historian) by Sima Qian, the Zhou started as an agrarian tribe, turned nomadic later and eventually became agrarian again.
- 9.
Xu, Zhuoyun (2001), Xi Zhou Shi [A History of Western Zhou], Sanlian Bookstore Press, pp. 77–78.
- 10.
Ba Yan chapter in Guan Zi.
- 11.
The phrase is usually used to describe the chaotic political and social situations of late Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. The wording first appeared in Yang Huo chapter in the Analects.
- 12.
Xue Er chapter in the Analects.
- 13.
Da Yu Mo chapter in Shangshu.
- 14.
Zhong Yong chapter in Liji (Book of Rites).
- 15.
Fifth chapter, Volume 1 of Ji Ci Zhuang in Yi Jing (Book of Changes).
- 16.
Yu Da chapter, Volume 13 of Lu Shi Chun Qiu.
- 17.
Poem Bei Shang in Xiao Ya section of Shi Jing (Book of Odes.)
- 18.
Tai Zu Xun chapter of Huai Nan Zi.
- 19.
Di Shu in Guan Zi.
- 20.
Zhongshang Jing chapter in Shan Hai Jing.
- 21.
Zhai, Guanzhu (1996). Zhongguo Gudai Biaozhunhua (Standardizations in Ancient China). Shanxi People’s Press, p. 80.
- 22.
Volume 74 in Shiji. Zhonghua Book Company, 1982, p. 2344.
- 23.
Ba Yan chapter in Guan Zi.
- 24.
Wang Ba chapter in Xun Zi.
- 25.
First half of Shang Tong chapter in Mo Zi.
- 26.
Ba Yan chapter in Guan Zi.
- 27.
Lord Yin section in Gongyang Annotated Chunqiu; Chapter 19 of Han Ji in Volume 27 of Sima Guang’s Zizhi Tongjian (Comprehensive mirror to aid in government) also states that: “as implied by Chunqiu, a king should be all inclusive in order to unify Tianxia.”
- 28.
Li Yun chapter in Li Ji (Book of Rites).
- 29.
Gui Gong chapter of Volume 1 in Lu Shi Chunqiu.
- 30.
Ibid.
- 31.
Xia Officialdom Sima chapter in Zhou Li (Book of Rites of Zhou); 14th Year of Lord Xiang in Zuo Zhuan.
- 32.
The first half of Zhou Yu in Guo Yu states: “according to the ancient King’s system, the land within is called Dian Zone, or King’s Land, the first out circle land Hou Zone, or the Noble Land, the next out circle land Bing Zone, or Guest Land, the third out circle land Yao Zone, or Outer Tribe Land, and fourth out circle land Huang Zone, or Wilderness Land.”
- 33.
Xia Officialdom Grand Sima chapter in Zhou Li states: “the land of a thousand li is called the Guo Ji. The land of five hundred li immediately outside is called Hou Ji, the next outland Dian Ji, the still next Nan Ji, the still next Cai Ji, the still next Wei Ji, the still next Man Ji, the still next Yi Ji, the still next Zheng Ji, and last Fan Ji.”
- 34.
Yu Gong chapter in Shang Shu states: “the first five hundred li area is Dian Fu or King’s farming land. On it, those who live within one hundred li area should pay their tax in the form of whole grain plant as harvested; those within two hundred li area in the form of grain spikelets with short stems intact only; those within three hundred li area in the form of grain spikelets without its short stems; those within four hundred li area in the form of rice with husks; and those within five hundred li in the form of shelled rice. The next five hundred li area is Hou Fu or nobles’ area, in which the first hundred li area is designated for high ministers of the court; the second hundred li area for Nan nobilities; and the rest hundred li area for nobles and higher officials who head large vassal states. The next five hundred li area is Sui Fu or land for appeasement: the first three hundred li area, close to the nobles’ area, usually has used education to nurture people, and the rest two hundred li uses military training and forces to safe-guard the country. The five hundred li further out is Yao Fu or area for outer tribes. In the area, the first three hundred li is for Yi ethnic groups, and the rest two hundred li for the exiled. Another five hundred li out is the land of wilderness where the first three hundred li is wide nature and the rest two hundred li is for the exiled criminals.”
- 35.
Mu Ming chapter in Guan Zi.
- 36.
54th chapter in Dao De Jing.
- 37.
Shun Qi of Wu Tao in Liu Tao. This is a forged collection of Lord Jiang’s quotations, probably written during the Warring States period.
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Zhao, T. (2019). The Concept of Tianxia and Its Story. In: Redefining A Philosophy for World Governance. Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture. Palgrave Pivot, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5971-2_1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5971-2_1
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