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Climate Refugees: The Role of South Asian Judiciaries in Protecting the Climate Refugees

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Climate Refugees in South Asia

Part of the book series: International Law and the Global South ((ILGS))

Abstract

The people are forced to move, migrate or leave their homelands due to climate change in South Asia. Justice necessitates that climate refugees must be provided and extended the same protection as is provided to the political refugees who have an array of rights and protections under the international refugee law superintended by the UNHCR that was created following the World War II. However, the national governments in South Asia have failed to address the climate change-induced migration in the region. In this conspectus, the present chapter explores, examines and assesses the role of the regional judiciary in protecting the climate refugees in the absence of a ‘climate refugee-specific law’ in the SAARC jurisdictions. The role of the judiciary in environmental governance and sustainable development has been recognized as one of most important features of South Asian jurisprudence. Thus, the instant chapter evaluates the judicial reception and responses to the refugee law and international climate change law in South Asia while making a case for Intra-South Asian Judicial Interactions on ‘climate refugees’. The chapter explains how the judiciary has played a proactive role in identifying the international environmental law principles to environmental protections. It also tries to explore the evolution of climate change regional constitutionalism to provide the SAARC jurisdictions a compendium of law and policies where under people crossing international borders in the region due to environmental calamities recognized as refugees by concluding and adopting a regional mechanism to protect the climate refugees.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    H Knox Thames, ‘India’s Failure to Adequately Protect Refugees’ (1999) 7(1) HRBRIEF 20–21.

  2. 2.

    G S Goodwin-Gill, ‘The Language of Protection’ (1989) 1(1) IJRL 6, 15.

  3. 3.

    UNGA Elaboration of a Draft Convention on Territorial Asylum (adopted 9 December 1975) A/RES/3456; UNGA report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UN GAOR 30th Session Supp No 12 UN DOC A/10012 (1975).

  4. 4.

    G Goodwin-Gill, Refugee in International Law (1st edn, OUP: Toronto 1983) 215.

  5. 5.

    Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (adopted 28 July 1951, entered into force 22 April 1954) 189 UNTS 137 (Refugee Convention) art 33 (1).

  6. 6.

    Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948 UNGA Res 217 A(III) (UDHR) art 14 (1).

  7. 7.

    Nafees Ahmad, ‘The Constitution-Based Approach of Indian Judiciary to The Refugee Rights and Global Standards of the UN Convention’ (2017) 8(1) KSLR, 30–55, 47.

  8. 8.

    Eric Paulsen, ‘The Citizenship Status of the Urdu-speakers/Biharis in Bangladesh’ (2006) 25 Refugee Survey Quarterly 54, 54–68.

  9. 9.

    Sumit Sen, ‘Stateless Refugees and the Right to Return: The Bihari Refugees of South Asia—Part 1’ (1999) 11 IJRL 625–645, 635.

  10. 10.

    Loraine Mirza, Internment Camps of Bangladesh (Crescent International, Ontario 1998) 66.

  11. 11.

    Abid Khan and others v Govt of Bangladesh and others (2003) 55 DLR (HCD).

  12. 12.

    Md Sadaqat Khan (Fakku) and others v Chief Election Commissioner Bangladesh Election Commission Writ Petition No 10129 of 2007, 18 May 2008 (Bangladesh).

  13. 13.

    SP Sarker, Refugee Law in India: The Road from Ambiguity to Protection (Palgrave Macmillan 2017) 27.

  14. 14.

    See State v Montasir M Gubara Criminal Case No 427/P/1994 (Court of Additional Chief Metropolitan Magistrate Mumbai); State v Huson Vilvaraj Case No 443/3 of 1997 (Court Metropolitan Magistrate New Delhi); State v Mohd Ehsan FIR No 435/1993 (Court of Metropolitan Magistrate New Delhi); State v Kishan Chand and Habib Iranpur Criminal Case No 66/96 (Court of Metropolitan Magistrate New Delhi) (in all these cases, the refugee was either not registered with the UNHRC, or failed to provide registration documents, and hence was awarded rigorous imprisonment from 1 to 6 months and fine).

  15. 15.

    FIR No 78/10 Court of Metropolitan Magistrate (Dwarka) New Delhi.

  16. 16.

    S.P. Sarker, Refugee Law in India: The Road from Ambiguity to Protection (Palgrave Macmillan 2017) 29.

  17. 17.

    Khudiram Chakma v Union Territory of Arunachal Pradesh and Ors AIR 1992 Gau 105 (High Court of Gauhati).

  18. 18.

    Ms Zothansangpuii v The State of Manipur Civil Rule No 981 of 1989 (High Court of Gauhati (Imphal Bench)); Khy-Htoon and Ors v The State of Manipur Civil Rule No 515 of 1990 (High Court of Gauhati); Mr Bogyi v Union of India Civil Rule No 1847/89 (High Court of Gauhati).

  19. 19.

    Gurunathan and Others v The Government of India and Others WP No 6708 and 7916 of 1992 (High Court of Madras); P Nedumaran and Dr S Ramadoss v Union of India and Another WP No 12298 and 12343 of 1992 (High Court of Madras); Aung Thant Min v Union of India WP (CRL) 110 of 1998 (High Court of Delhi).

  20. 20.

    Namgyal Dolkar v Govt of India Ministry of External Affairs WP (C) 12179/2009 (High Court of Delhi); Sasikumar v State of Tamil Nadu WP (MD) No 10080 of 2008 and MP (MD) No 2 of 2008 (High Court of Madras, Madurai Bench); Tenzin Choephag Ling Rinpoche v Union of India WP No 15437 of 2013 (High Court of Karnataka at Bangalore); Nityananda Malik and Ors v State of Meghalaya and Ors WP(C) No 235 of 2010 (High Court of Meghalaya) (Courts granted citizenship status to these refugees).

  21. 21.

    S.P. Sarker (n 13) 45.

  22. 22.

    Ibid 46; Nafees Ahmad (n 7) 45.

  23. 23.

    AIR 1994 SC 1461 (Supreme Court of India).

  24. 24.

    Ibid.

  25. 25.

    Ibid.

  26. 26.

    1 January 1966 has been provided as cut-off date under the Citizenship Act.

  27. 27.

    ‘Assam’ means the territories included in the State of Assam immediately before the commencement of the Citizenship (amendment) Act, 1985 (Section 6A(1)(a)) and all persons of Indian origin who came before the first day of January 1966 to Assam from the specified territory (including such of those whose names were included in the electoral rolls used for the purposes of the General Election to the House of the People held in 1967) and who have been ordinarily resident in Assam since the dates of their entry into Assam shall be deemed to be citizens of India as from the first day of January 1966. (Section 6A(2)).

  28. 28.

    (1996) 1 SCC 742 (Supreme Court of India).

  29. 29.

    WP (Civil) No 510 of 2007 (Supreme Court of India).

  30. 30.

    Dr. Malavika Karlekar v Union of India and Anr WP (CRL) No 583 of 1992 (Supreme Court of India).

  31. 31.

    ND Pancholi v State of Punjab and Others WP (CRL) No 243 of 1988 (Supreme Court of India).

  32. 32.

    CRL WP No 125 & 126 of 1986.

  33. 33.

    CRL WP No 243 of 1988.

  34. 34.

    AIR 1984 SC 667.

  35. 35.

    1983 Kant 85.

  36. 36.

    AIR 1980 SC 470.

  37. 37.

    (1991) 3 SCC 554.

  38. 38.

    Chairman Railway Board v Chandrimadas & Ors 2000(2) SCC 465.

  39. 39.

    The Constitution of India 1950, art 226.

  40. 40.

    (1996) 1 SCC 490.

  41. 41.

    Universal Declaration of Human Rights (n 6).

  42. 42.

    International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (adopted 21 December 1965, entered into force 4 January 1979) 660 UNTS 195 (CERD).

  43. 43.

    WP No S 6708 and 7916 of 1992.

  44. 44.

    1998(47)DRJ(DB) 74.

  45. 45.

    1993 (2) ALT 291.

  46. 46.

    CRL WP No7504/1994 (Bombay High Court).

  47. 47.

    Refugee Convention (n 5) art 33 (1); Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (adopted 10 December 1984, entered into force 26 June 1987) 1465 UNTS 85 (CAT 1984) art 3.

  48. 48.

    Editor, ‘Nepalese Supreme Court rules against forcible return of Tibetan refugees to Tibet’ International Campaign for Tibet (23 September 2011) www.savetibet.org/nepalese-supreme-court-rules-against-forcible-return-of-tibetan-refugees-to-tibet/ accessed 17 December 2017.

  49. 49.

    Ibid.

  50. 50.

    Ibid.

  51. 51.

    Sophie Richardson (ed), ‘Under China’s Shadow: Mistreatment of Tibetans in Nepal’ (Human Rights Watch, 2014) 64 www.hrw.org/report/2014/04/01/under-chinas-shadow/mistreatment-tibetans-nepal#page accessed 24 December 2017.

  52. 52.

    Abul Hasnat Milton et al., ‘Trapped in Statelessness: Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh’ (2017) 14(8) Int J Environ Res Public Health 942–950.

  53. 53.

    Krishna N. Das and Sanjeev Miglani, ‘India Aims to Deport all Rohingya Muslims, Even those with UN Registration: Govt’ Hindustan Times (14 August 2017) www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/india-aims-to-deport-all-rohingya-muslims-even-those-with-un-registration-govt/story-UhzebiCZ3zBt6qu8ujl9iN.html accessed 17 December 2017.

  54. 54.

    Mohamm’d Salimullah v Union of India WP(C) No 793 of 2017 (Supreme Court of India).

  55. 55.

    Editor, ‘NHRC Issues Notice on Rohingyas’ The Hindu (New Delhi, 18 August 2017) www.thehindu.com/news/national/nhrc-issues-notice-on-rohingyas/article19519828.ece accessed 18 December 2017.

  56. 56.

    Editor, ‘Supreme Court says Human Rights of Rohingya refugees cannot be Ignored’ Hindustan Times (India 13 October 2017) www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/human-rights-of-rohingya-refugees-cannot-be-ignored-says-supreme-court/story-P1QnPPLgdQdzsQPOWkwH9M.html accessed 18 December 2017.

  57. 57.

    Vernon Rive, ‘Safe Harbours, Closed Borders? NewZealand Legal and Policy Responses to Climate Displacement in the South Pacific’, in Paul Martin et al. (eds), The Search for Environmental Justice (Edward Elgar Publishing 2015) 221–238.

  58. 58.

    Jon Barnett, and Michael Webber, ‘Migration as Adaptation: Opportunities and Limits’ in Jane McAdam (ed), Climate Change and Displacement: Multidisciplinary perspectives (Hart, Oxford 2010) 37–56.

  59. 59.

    The report of the International Bar Association (IBA) and Task Force on Climate Change Justice aims to: ‘…ensure communities, individuals and governments have substantive legal and procedural rights relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment and the means to take or cause measures to be taken within their national legislative and judicial systems and, where necessary, at regional and international levels, to mitigate sources of climate change and provide for adaptation to its effects in a manner that respects human rights’.

  60. 60.

    UNHCR ‘Guidance on Protecting People from Disasters and Environmental Change through Planned Relocation’ (7 October 2015) https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/GUIDANCE_PLANNED-RELOCATION_14-OCT-2015.pdf accessed on 15 April 2018; see also Philippe Sands, Jacqueline Peel et al., Principles of International Environmental Law (3rd edn, CUP 2012) 274–98, Bayes Ahmed, ‘Who Takes Responsibility for the Climate Refugees?’ (2018)10(1) Int.l. J. Clim. Chang. Str, 5–26.

  61. 61.

    Alan Boyle, ‘Human Rights and the Environment: Where Next?’ (2012) 23 EJIL 613, 617–23.

  62. 62.

    See generally Philippe Sands et al. (n 60) 22–49 Philippe Sands Greening International Law (Earth Scan Publications, London 2011).

  63. 63.

    Cinnamon P Carlarne, Kevin R Gray and Richard G.Tarasofsky. ‘International Climate Change Law: Mapping the Field’ in Kevin R Gray et al., The Oxford Handbook of International Climate Change Law (OUP 2016) 4–23.

  64. 64.

    Ibid.

  65. 65.

    David B Hunter, ‘The Implications of Climate Change Litigation for International Environmental Law-Making’ (2007) American University WCL Research Paper No 2008-14, 1–21, 8 http://ssrn.com/abstract=1005345 accessed 28 December 2017.

  66. 66.

    K A Baumert, ‘Participation of Developing Countries in the International Climate Change Regime: Lessons for the Future’ (2006) 38 Geo Wash Int’l L. Rev 365–407; Jutta Brunnée, ‘Promoting Compliance with Multilateral Environmental Agreements’ in Lavanya Rajamani, Jutta Brunnée and Meinhard Doelle (eds) Promoting Compliance in an Evolving Climate Regime(Cambridge University Press 2012) 48–49; Sumudu Atapattu, ‘Climate Change, Differentiated Responsibilities and State Responsibility: Devising Novel Legal Strategies for Damage Caused by Climate Change’ in Benjamin J Richardson et al., (eds) Climate Law and Developing Countries (Edward Elgar 2009) 37–62.

  67. 67.

    David Free Stone, ‘United nations Framework Convention on Climate Change-The Baiss for the Climate Regime’, Kevin R Gray et al., The Oxford Handbook of International Climate Change Law (OUP 2016) 97–119, 101.

  68. 68.

    Cinnamon P Carlarne (n 63) 4–23; see Stellina Jolly and Amit Jain, Climate Change: Changing Dimensions of Law and Policy (MD Publishers 2009) 16.

  69. 69.

    Daniel Bodanksy, ‘The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: A Commentary’ (1993) 18 Yale J. Int'l L. 451–558, 497.

  70. 70.

    Jane Bulmer, ‘Compliance Regimes in Multilateral Environmental Agreements’ in Lavanya Rajamani, Jutta Brunnée and Meinhard Doelle, Promoting Compliance in an Evolving Climate Regime (Cambridge University Press 2012) 55–56; Daniel Bodansky, ‘A Tale of Two Architectures: The Once and Future U.N. Climate Change Regime’ (2011) 43 Ariz. St. L. J 697, 698–701.

  71. 71.

    Ibid.

  72. 72.

    Daniel Bodansky, The Art and Craft of International Environmental Law (Harvard University Press 2010) 205.

  73. 73.

    David B Hunter (n 65), 2–3.

  74. 74.

    Ibid.

  75. 75.

    Daniel Bodansky, Jutta Brunnée and Lavanya Rajamani, International Climate Change Law (Oxford Univers ity Press 2017) 11–12.

  76. 76.

    Hannah Brock, ‘Climate Change: Drivers of Insecurity and the Global South’ (2012) Oxford Research Group. 1–20, 4–5 www.files.ethz.ch/isn/146109/Climate%20Change%20and%20Insecurity%20in%20the%20Global%20South.pdf accessed 28 December 2017.

  77. 77.

    Daniel Bodansky, ‘The Role of the International Court of Justice in Addressing Climate Change: Some Preliminary Reflections’ (2017) 49 Ariz. St. L. J 689–712, 694; Philippe Sands, ‘Climate Change and The Rule of Law: Adjudicating the Future in International Law’ (2016) 28 JEL 19–35.

  78. 78.

    Ibid, 19.

  79. 79.

    Jacqueline Peel and Hari M Osofsky, Climate Change Litigation: Regulatory Pathways to Cleaner Energy (CUP 2015) 10–13; see generally William CG Bums and Hari M Osofsky (eds), Adjudicating Climate Change: State, National, and International Approaches (CUP 2009); Michael Faure and Marjan Peeters (eds), Climate Change Liability (Edward Elgar 2011); Michael G Faure and Andrew Nollkaemper, ‘International Liability as an Instrument to Prevent and Compensate for Climate Change’ (2007) 43 Stan. J. Int’l. 123–179.

  80. 80.

    ‘Palau seeks UN World Court opinion on damage caused by Greenhouse Gases’ UN News Centre (22 September 2011) www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39710#.WdCPMXFPnIU accessed 30 September 2017.

  81. 81.

    Daniel Bodansky (n 77) 689; Zona Razaque, ‘Access to Justice in Environmental Matters and the North–South Divide’ in Shawkat Alam, Sumudu Atapattu, Carmen G. Gonzalez and Jona Razzaque, International Environmental Law and the Global South (Cambridge University Press 2015) 588–607, 591; see generally Eric A Posner, ‘Climate Change and International Human Rights Litigation: A Critical Appraisal’ (2007) 155 U.Pa.L. Rev 1925–1945.

  82. 82.

    Ibid, Bodansky, 700; Sumudu Atapattu, Human Rights Approaches to Climate Change: Challenges and Opportunities (Routledge 2015) 85.

  83. 83.

    Jacqueline Peel and Hari M Osofsky, Climate Change Litigation (Cambridge University Press 2015) 50.

  84. 84.

    International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), ‘Request for an Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on the Principles of Sustainable Development in View of the Needs of Future Generation’ WCC-2016-Res-079-EN (10 September 2016).

  85. 85.

    Massachusetts v EPA 549 US 497, 2007; Am Elec Power Co v Connecticut 564 U.S. 410, 2011; Native Village of Kivalina v Exxon Mobil Corp 696 F.3d 849, 9th Cir 2012; Juliana v United States No 6:15-cv-1517-TC 2016.

  86. 86.

    Gbemre v Shell Petroleum Dev Co Nigeria AFR HUM RTs L REP 151 (F.H.C. Nigeria) 2005.

  87. 87.

    Leghari v Federation of Pakistan WP No 25501/2015 (Lahore High Court) 2015 (this case was based on principles of sustainable development, precaution, and inter-generational equity).

  88. 88.

    Greenpeace New Zealand v Northland Regional Council NZHC CIV 2006404-004617 at 2006; Genesis Power Ltd v Franklin Dist Council NZRMA 541 (NZ) 2005 (these cases were based on domestic environmental legislation).

  89. 89.

    Friends of the earth v Canada FC 1183 2008 (Can Fed Ct) (this case came before the Court for alleged violations of the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol).

  90. 90.

    Kenneth J Markowitz and Jo JA Gerardu, ‘The Importance of the Judiciary in Environmental Compliance and Enforcement’ (2012) 29 Pace Envtl. L. Rev 538–554, 540.

  91. 91.

    Brian Preston, ‘The Role of the Judiciary in Promoting Sustainable Development: The Experience of Asia and the Pacific’ (2005) 9 Asia. Pac. J. of Env. L 109–211, 113–14.

  92. 92.

    David B Hunter (n 65).

  93. 93.

    Ibid.

  94. 94.

    Ibid.

  95. 95.

    Urgenda Foundation v The State of the Netherlands C/09/456689/HA ZA 13-1396 (24 June 2015).

  96. 96.

    Ibid.

  97. 97.

    Ibid.

  98. 98.

    Ibid.

  99. 99.

    Roger Cox, ‘A Climate Change Litigation Precedent Urgenda Foundation v The State Of The Netherlands’ (2015) CIGI Papers No 79, 9–10 www.cigionline.org/sites/default/files/cigi_paper_79.pdf accessed 1 January 2018.

  100. 100.

    K J de Graaf and J H Jans, ‘The Urgenda Decision: Netherlands Liable for Role in Causing Dangerous Global Climate Change’ (2015) 27(3) JEL 517–527.

  101. 101.

    Colombo, Esmeralda, ‘Enforcing International Climate Change Law in Domestic Courts: A New Trend of Cases for Boosting Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration?’ (2017) 35(1) UCLA Journal of Environmental Law and Policy 98–144, 131.

  102. 102.

    Jolene Lin, ‘Climate Change Litigation in Asia and the Pacific’ in Geert Van Calster, Wim Vandenberghe and Leonie Reins, Research Handbook on Climate Change Mitigation Law (Edward Elgar Publishing 2015) 578–603, 596 (Global Legal Action on Climate Change v The Philippine Government) http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/litigation/global-legal-action-on-climate-change-v-the-philippine-government/ accessed 10 April 2018.

  103. 103.

    Ibid.

  104. 104.

    Greenpeace Southeast Asia and Philippine Rural Reconstruction Movement, ‘To the Commission on Human Rights of the Philippines Requesting for Investigation of the Responsibility of the Carbon Majors for Human Rights Violations or Threats of Violations Resulting from the Impacts of Climate Change’ (Greenpeace) www.greenpeace.org/seasia/ph/PageFiles/105904/Climate-Change-and-Human-Rights-Complaint.pdf accessed 10 March 2018.

  105. 105.

    Ibid, 7.

  106. 106.

    Ibid.

  107. 107.

    Ibid.

  108. 108.

    In Re: National Inquiry On The Impact Of Climate Change On The human Rights Of The Filipino People CHR-NI-2016-0001 (19 March 2018) www.ciel.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Joint-Summary-Amicus-submitted.pdf accessed 23 March 2018 (Joint Summary of the Amicus Curiae).

  109. 109.

    Ibid.

  110. 110.

    Juliana v United States Case No 6:15-cv-01517-TC.

  111. 111.

    Ibid, 2.

  112. 112.

    Ibid.

  113. 113.

    Ibid, 32.

  114. 114.

    Ibid, 49.

  115. 115.

    Joel Stronberg, ‘Julaina versus US: For Children of all ages’ (Resilience) www.resilience.org/stories/2017-12-14/juliana-vs-u-s-children-ages2/ accessed 23 March 2018.

  116. 116.

    Ibid.

  117. 117.

    Teitiota v Chief Executive of the Ministry of Business Innovation and Employment [2015] NZSC 107, 4.

  118. 118.

    Ibid 5.

  119. 119.

    Ibid 6.

  120. 120.

    Teitiota v The Chief Executive of the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment [2013] NZHC3125; Teitiota v The Chief Executive of the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment [2014]NZCA 173.

  121. 121.

    Teitiota (n 117).

  122. 122.

    Refugee Appeal No 72185 [2000] NZRSAA 335 (10 August 2000); Refugee Appeal No 72189 [2000] NZRSAA 355 (17 August 2000); Refugee Appeal No 72315 [2000] NZRSAA 493 (19 October 2000) (refusal by New Zealand Refugee Status Appeals Authority to grant refugee status to Tuvalu citizens on grounds of environmental and economic hardship); Minister Mohammed Motahir Ali v Minister of Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs [1994] FCA 887 (4 February 1994) (refusal by Australian Supreme Court to grant refugee status to Bangladeshi immigrant on grounds of hardship due to climate change).

  123. 123.

    Teitiota (n 117) 11.

  124. 124.

    Ibid 8; Mark Baker Jones and Melanie Baker-Jones, ‘Teitiota v The Chief Executive Of Ministry Of Business, Innovation And Employment—A Person Displaced’ (2015) 15(2) QUT L. Rev. 102–121, 114.

  125. 125.

    Harriet Farquhar, ‘Migration with Dignity: Towards a New Zealand Response to Climate Change Displacement in the Pacific’ (LLB (Honours) Degree, Faculty of Law, Victoria University of Wellington 2014) 4–5 http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10063/4302/thesis.pdf?sequence=2.

  126. 126.

    Christel Cournil, ‘The inadequacy of International Refugee Law in Response to Environmental Migration’ in Benoît Maye and François Crépeau (Eds), Research Handbook on Climate Change, Migration and the Law (Edwar Elgar 2017) 85–107, 99.

  127. 127.

    Teitiota (n 117) 12.

  128. 128.

    Ibid, 13.

  129. 129.

    AD (Tuvalu) [2014] NZIPT 501370-371 4.

  130. 130.

    Ibid 28.

  131. 131.

    Ibid 31.

  132. 132.

    Hélène Ragheboom, The International Legal Status and Protection of Environmentally-Displaced Persons: A European Perspective (Brill Publishers 2017) 405.

  133. 133.

    Immigration Act 2009, s 207.

  134. 134.

    Ibid; Christel Cournil (n 126), 94; see Elisa Formale, Jeremie Guelat and Etienne Piguet, ‘Framing Labour Mobility Options in Small Island States Affected by Environmental Changes’ in Robert McLeman, Jeanette Schade and Thomas Faist (Eds), Environmental Migration and Social Inequality (Springer 2015) 9, 167–188, 179.

  135. 135.

    Jane McAdam, ‘The Emerging New Zealand Jurisprudence on Climate Change, Disasters and Displacement’ (2015) 3(1) Migration Studies 131–142, 137.

  136. 136.

    Parvez Hassan and Azim Azfar, ‘Securing Environmental Rights through Public Interest Litigation in South Asia’ (2004) 22(3) Va. Envt.l L. J 215–247, 219.

  137. 137.

    M Farooque v Bangladesh and Others (1997) 49 DLR (AD) 1.

  138. 138.

    Ibid.

  139. 139.

    Constitution of People’s Republic of Bangladesh 1972, art 31.

  140. 140.

    Ibid, art 32.

  141. 141.

    Ibid.

  142. 142.

    Md Saiful Karim and others, ‘Legal Activism For Ensuring Environmental Justice’ (2012) 7(1) ASJCL 1–46, 14 https://eprints.qut.edu.au/61471/4/61471.pdf accessed 23 March 2018. See generally Saiful Karim, Shipbreaking in Developing Countries: A Requiem for Environmental Justice from the Perspective of Bangladesh (Routledge 2017) 112.

  143. 143.

    Ibid, 37–38.

  144. 144.

    Dr. Mohiuddin Farooque v Bangladesh and Others WP No 92 of 1996.

  145. 145.

    Saiful Karim and others (n 142) 24.

  146. 146.

    Zona Razaque, ‘Access to Environmental Justice Role of the Judiciary in Bangladesh’ (2000) 4(1) BJL 1, 25, 12.

  147. 147.

    Environment Court Act 2000, Preamble (Bangladesh).

  148. 148.

    Abu Bakar Siddique, ‘Environment Court a Failure’ Dhaka Tribune (2 April 2016) www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2016/apr/02/environment-court-failure   accessed 15 April 2016.

  149. 149.

    ‘Environment Court in Every District’ Bangladesh News (04 October 2010) www.independent-bangladesh.com/2010100412013/country/environment-court-in-every-district.html accessed 15 April 2016.

  150. 150.

    Environment Court Act 2000 (n 148) s 6 & 7.

  151. 151.

    Robert Kibugi, ‘Enhanced Access to Environmental Justice Kenya’ in Jamie Benidickson and others (eds), Environmental Law and Sustainability after Rio (Edward Elger 2011) 158–178, 159.

  152. 152.

    Brian J Preston, ‘Characteristics of Successful Environmental Courts and Tribunals’ (2014) 26(3) J 365–393, 368.

  153. 153.

    Robert Kibugi (n 151) 158.

  154. 154.

    PTI News, ‘Indian judiciary one of most powerful in world: CJI Altamas Kabir’ Economic Times (17 June 2013) https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/indian-judiciary-one-of-most-powerful-in-world-cji-altamas-kabir/articleshow/20634022.cms accessed 21 April 2018.

  155. 155.

    Quoted in CM Abraham, ‘Environmental jurisprudence in India’ (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 1999) 33.

  156. 156.

    Stellina Jolly, ‘Ninth Schedule, Basic Structure, and Constitutionalism: Issues and Perspectives’ (2007) 48 PULR 51 (The basic structure doctrine was propounded in the case of Kesavannda Bharati v State of Kerala (1973) 4 SCC 225. The doctrine puts limitation on the amending powers of Parliament and states that there are certain basic features of the Constitution which cannot be amended. In Raj Narain v Indira Gandhi (1975) AIR 865 judicial review was recognized a constituting basic structure to the Constitution).

  157. 157.

    Manoj Mate, ‘Globalisation, Rights and Judicial Activism in The Supreme Court of India’ (2016) 25 Pac Rim L & Pol’y J 643–671, 647; Armin Rosencranz and Michael Jackson, ‘The Delhi Pollution Case: The Supreme Court of India and the Limits of Judicial Power’ (2003) 28 Colum J Envtl L 223–254, 229; Lennon Banks Haas, ‘Saving the Trees One Constitutional Provision at the time: Judicial Activism and Deforestation in India’ (2011) 40 Ga J Int'l & Comp L 751–779,764; see also Ayesha Dias, ‘Judicial Activism in the Development and Enforcement of Environmental Law: Some Comparative Insights from the Indian Experience’ (1994) 6(2) JEL 243–62.

  158. 158.

    Bharat H Desai, ‘The Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster Litigation: An Overview’ (1993) 3 Asian Y B Int’l L 163–179, 168.

  159. 159.

    (1868) LR 3 HL 330; See Dr SK Kapoor, Law of Torts and Consumer Protection (9th edn, Central Law Agency 2013) 223.

  160. 160.

    The ‘absolute liability’ principle was reiterated in the case of Bhopal Judgment Union Carbide Corporations v Union of India (1990) AIR SC 273.

  161. 161.

    1978 AIR SC 597.

  162. 162.

    See Arun K Thiruvengadam, ‘In Pursuit of “The Common Illumination of Our House”; Trans-Judicial Influence and The origins of PIL Jurisprudence in South Asia’ (2008) 2 IJCL 66–103, 94.

  163. 163.

    Shubhankar Dam and Vivek Tiwari ‘Polluting Environment, Polluting Constitution: Is a ‘Polluted’ Constitution Worse than a Polluted Environment?’ (2005) 17 JEL 383–393; see Kuldip Singh, ‘Environmental Protection—The Role of Judiciary’ (2004) CULR 15–24; Michael R Anderson, ‘Individual Rights to Environmental Protection in India' in Alan Boyle and Michael Anderson (Eds), Human Right Approaches to Environmental Protection (Oxford: Clarendon University Press 1998) 199–225, 201.

  164. 164.

    Origin of PIL could be traced to the historic case of the Hussainara Khatoon v State of Bihar 1979 AIR 1819, decided in 1979, which lead to case led to the release of more than 40,000 under trial prisoners in the Indian state of Bihar. The concept got a filling with the decision in S.P. Gupta v Union of India, 1981. This is in stark contrast to the European Union, where Public Interest Litigation by non-governmental organisations (‘NGOs’) is discouraged by adopting restrictive rules on standing: See Bilun Muller, ‘Access to the Courts of the Member States for NGOs in Environmental Matters under European Union Law' (2011) 23(3) JEL 505–516. For a discussion on locus standi, see Susan D Susman, ‘Distant Voices in the Courts of India: Transformation of Standing in Public Interest Litigation’ (1994–95) 13 Wis Int’l LJ 57–101.

  165. 165.

    J Mijin Cha, ‘A Critical Examination of the Environmental Jurisprudence of the Courts of India’ (2005) 10 Alb L Envtl Outlook J 197, 199–204.

  166. 166.

    See generally, Stuart Bell, Donald Mcgillivary and Ole W Pederesen, Environmental Law (8th edn, Oxford University Press 2008) 350 (for a discussion on specialized environmental courts and its significance).

  167. 167.

    MC Mehta v Union of India 1986 (2) SCC 176; Indian Council for Environmental-Legal Action v Union of India 1996(3) SCC 212; AP Pollution Control Board v MV Nayudu 1999(2) SCC 718.

  168. 168.

    Law Commission of India, Proposal to Constitute Environmental Courts (186th report 2003).

  169. 169.

    Gitanjali Nain Gill, ‘Environmental Justice in India: The National Green Tribunal and Expert Members’ (2016) 5(1) TEL 175–205 (established under the 2010 National Green Tribunal Act, the NGT is a specialized body equipped with the necessary expertise to effective and expeditious dispose environmental disputes involving multidisciplinary issues).

  170. 170.

    National Green Tribunal Act 2010, s 20 (India).

  171. 171.

    Arindam Basu, ‘Climate Change Litigation In India: Seeking A New Approach Through The Application Of Common Law Principles’ (2011) 1 Env. L. & Practice Rev. 34–50, 38.

  172. 172.

    Lavanya Rajamani, ‘Rights Based Climate Litigation in the Indian Courts: Potential, Prospects & Potential Problems’ (2013) Centre for Policy Research, Climate Initiative Working Paper 2013/1(May) https://ssrn.com/abstract=2464927 accessed 24 April 27, 2018.

  173. 173.

    Goa Foundation v Goa State Coastal Zone Management 2001 (4) Bom CR 226.

  174. 174.

    Ibid [39].

  175. 175.

    Appeal No 21 of 2011, Judgment dated 29 November 2011.

  176. 176.

    Gitanjali Nain Gill, ‘The National Green Tribunal Of India: A Sustainable Future Through The Principles Of International Environmental Law’ (2014) 16(3) Environmental Law Review 183–202.

  177. 177.

    BB Nalawade v Ministry of Environment and Forests, NGT Appeal No 21 of 2011 [22].

  178. 178.

    Ibid.

  179. 179.

    Indian Council for Enviro-legal Action (ICELA) v Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate and Others NGT Order dated 10 December 2015.

  180. 180.

    Ibid [2].

  181. 181.

    Ibid [7].

  182. 182.

    Ibid [8].

  183. 183.

    Ibid [7].

  184. 184.

    Ibid [21].

  185. 185.

    Ibid [23].

  186. 186.

    Ibid [23].

  187. 187.

    Application No 19/2014 (WZ)AND MA No66/2015 (The National Green Tribunal (Western Zone) Bench Pune).

  188. 188.

    Ibid [1].

  189. 189.

    Ibid [2].

  190. 190.

    Ibid [34].

  191. 191.

    Ibid [34].

  192. 192.

    Tamil Nadu Newsprint And Papers Ltd v Tamil Nadu Electricity Regulatory Commission 2007 ELR (APTEL) 157.

  193. 193.

    Ibid [1].

  194. 194.

    Ibid [17].

  195. 195.

    Ibid [11].

  196. 196.

    Ibid [11].

  197. 197.

    Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Union of India AIR 2000 SC 3751.

  198. 198.

    Ibid.

  199. 199.

    Ibid.

  200. 200.

    Ibid.

  201. 201.

    Ibid.

  202. 202.

    Ibid.

  203. 203.

    Writ Petition (C) No 40 of 2005 (Sikkim High Court).

  204. 204.

    Ibid.

  205. 205.

    Ibid.

  206. 206.

    Mohd Salim v Uttarakhand and ors 2017 (2) RCR (Civil) 636 (Uttarakhand High Court).

  207. 207.

    Ibid [19].

  208. 208.

    Ibid [9].

  209. 209.

    Ibid [3].

  210. 210.

    Ridhima Pandey v Union of India and Ors OA No 187 of 2017 (Principal Bench NGT, New Delhi).

  211. 211.

    Ibid [3].

  212. 212.

    Ibid [1].

  213. 213.

    Ibid [1].

  214. 214.

    Ibid [2].

  215. 215.

    Ibid [9].

  216. 216.

    MC Mehta v Kamal Nath (1997) 1 SCC 388 (first mention of the doctrine by the Indian judiciary); see also, MI Builders Pvt Ltd v Radhey Shyam Sahu AIR 1999 SC 2468; Th Majra Singh v Indian Oil Corporation AIR 1999 J&K 81 (Jammu & Kashmir High Court, India).

  217. 217.

    MC Mehta v Union of India and others (1997) 11 SCC 312; ND Jayal v Union of India (2004) 9 SCC 362.

  218. 218.

    Ridhima Pandey (210) 6.

  219. 219.

    Ibid.

  220. 220.

    Ibid.

  221. 221.

    Ibid.

  222. 222.

    Ibid.

  223. 223.

    Ibid [12].

  224. 224.

    Ibid.

  225. 225.

    Ibid.

  226. 226.

    Ibid [12].

  227. 227.

    Ibid [13].

  228. 228.

    Ibid [13].

  229. 229.

    Ibid [13].

  230. 230.

    Ibid [13].

  231. 231.

    Ibid [14].

  232. 232.

    Ibid [14].

  233. 233.

    Ibid [15].

  234. 234.

    Ibid.

  235. 235.

    Ibid [21].

  236. 236.

    Ibid.

  237. 237.

    Suray Prasad Sharma Dhungel v Godavari Marble Industries and others WP 35/1992 (Nepal Supreme Court).

  238. 238.

    Ibid.

  239. 239.

    Ibid.

  240. 240.

    Ibid; see, David R Boyd, The Environmental Rights Revolution: A Global Study of Constitutions, Human Rights, and the Environment (UBC Press 2011) 17–171.

  241. 241.

    Shayami Puyimanasinghe, ‘From a Divided Heritage to a Common Future, International Investment Law, Human Rights and Sustainable Development’ in Shawkat Alam, Sumudu Atapattu, Carmen G Gonzalez and Jona Razzaque (Eds), International Environmental Law and the Global South (Cambridge University press 2015) 321.

  242. 242.

    Alice Palmer and Cairo AR Robb, International Environmental Law reports (4th Volume, Cambridge University Press 1999) 321–330, 322.

  243. 243.

    Ibid.

  244. 244.

    Ibid.

  245. 245.

    Advocate Prakash Mani Sharma v Cabinet Secretariat Writ No 3027/2059 (Supreme Court of Nepal).

  246. 246.

    Yogi Narahari Nath and other v Hon Prime Minister Girija Prasad Koirala and other 33 NLR 1955 (Spreme Court Of Nepal).

  247. 247.

    Ibid; see also, Stellina Jolly, ‘A Legal Analysis of Linking Human Right Approach to Access to Water and Sharing of Trans Boundary Rivers in South Asia’ in J L Kaul and Anupama Jha (Eds), Shifting Horizons of Public International law in South Asia (Springer, 2018) 135–158.

  248. 248.

    United Nations Environment Programme, Compendium of Summaries of Judicial Decisions in Environment Related Cases (UNEP 2005) 162.

  249. 249.

    Prabindra Shakya, Chairperson of Community Empowerment and Social Justice Foundation v State of Nepal https://cemsoj.files.wordpress.com/2015/09/redd-writ-eng.pdf accessed 25 April 2018.

  250. 250.

    Ibid.

  251. 251.

    Ibid.

  252. 252.

    Ibid.

  253. 253.

    Shehla Zia and Others vs. WAPDA 1994 PLD SC 693 (Supreme Court of Pakistan).

  254. 254.

    Ibid.

  255. 255.

    Ibid.

  256. 256.

    Ibid.

  257. 257.

    Ibid.

  258. 258.

    Ibid.

  259. 259.

    2005 CLC 424 (Karachi).

  260. 260.

    Ibid; see also Waris Husain, ‘Pakistan’s Patch Work of High Court Justice’, in Aparna Pande (Eds), Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Pakistan (Routledge 2017).

  261. 261.

    Suo Moto Case No. 25 of 2009 (Cutting of Trees for Canal Widening Project Lahore), 2011 SCMR 1743.

  262. 262.

    Wen-Chen Chang, Li-ann Thio, Kevin YL Tan and Jiunn-rong Yeh, Constitutionalism in Asia: Cases and Materials (Bloomsbury Publishing 2014) 1015.

  263. 263.

    2011 SCMR 1743.

  264. 264.

    Irum Ahsan and Saima Amin Khawaja, Development of Environmental Laws and Jurisprudence in Pakistan (Asian Development Bank 2013) 17.

  265. 265.

    Asghar Leghari (n 87).

  266. 266.

    Ibid; see James R May and Erin Daly, Judicial handbook of Environmental Constitutionalism (United Nations Environment Programme 2017) 119–120.

  267. 267.

    Asghar Leghari v Federation of Pakistan and others WP No 25501/2015 [4].

  268. 268.

    Ibid [3].

  269. 269.

    Ibid [4].

  270. 270.

    Ibid [11].

  271. 271.

    Ibid [7].

  272. 272.

    Ibid [7].

  273. 273.

    Ibid [7]; JessicaVents, (26 September 2015). Lahore Court orders Pakistan to act on Climate Change. Retrieved May 4, 2016, from http://blogs.law.columbia.edu/climatechange/2015/09/26/lahore-high-court-orders-pakistan-to-act-on-climate-change/.

  274. 274.

    Asghar Leghari v Federation of Pakistan and others WP No 25501/2015 [8].

  275. 275.

    Ibid [8].

  276. 276.

    Ibid [8(3)].

  277. 277.

    Ibid [8(3)].

  278. 278.

    Ibid [11].

  279. 279.

    Ibid [9]; see Parvez Hassan, ‘Judicial Commission on Climate Change in Pakistan’, (APCEL Climate Change Adaptation Platform, A paper for the 20th APCEL Anniversary conference Panel on Climate Change Adaptation) https://law.nus.edu.sg/apcel/cca/4.%20JudicialCommissiononClimateChangeinPakistan.pdf.

  280. 280.

    Ibid.

  281. 281.

    Ibid.

  282. 282.

    Pakistan Climate Change Act 2017.

  283. 283.

    Jacqueline Peel and Hari M Osofsky, ‘A Rights Turn in Climate Change Litigation?’ (2018) 7(1) TEL 37–67, 38.

  284. 284.

    Sumudu Atapattu, ‘A Commentary on the Draft Fundamental Rights Chapter’ in Sri Lanka: State of Human Rights 1998 (Colombo: Law & Society Trust, 1998) 173–191.

  285. 285.

    Ibid.

  286. 286.

    Camena Guneratne, ‘Using Constitutional Provisions to Advance Environmental Justice—Some Reflections on Sri Lanka’ (2015) 11(2) Law, Environment and Development Journal 3–22, 7.

  287. 287.

    Environmental Foundation Ltd and Others v The Attorney General and Others SC Application No 128/91.

  288. 288.

    Jane E Schukoske, ‘Enforcing Environmental Laws in Sri Lanka through Fundamental Rights Litigation’ (1996) 8(2) International Legal Perspectives 155–172, 162.

  289. 289.

    The Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Srilanka, art 11 (No person shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment).

  290. 290.

    Ibid, art 14 (g) (the freedom to engage by himself or in association with others in any lawful occupation, profession, trade, business or enterprise).

  291. 291.

    Ibid, art 12(1) (all persons are equal before the law and are entitled to the equal protection of the law).

  292. 292.

    Ibid.

  293. 293.

    Environmental Foundation Ltd v Ratnasiri Wickremanayake, Minister of Public Administration and others 3(4) S Asian Envtl L Rep 103 (1996).

  294. 294.

    Gunaratne v The Homagama Pradeshiya Sabha App No 210/97(FR) of 4 March 1998; see Shyami Fernando Puvimanasinghe, ‘Towards a Jurisprudence of Sustainable Development in South Asia: Litigation in the Public Interest’ (2009) 10(1) Sustainable Development Law & Policy 41–49, 46.

  295. 295.

    Environmental Foundation Ltd and Others v The Attorney General and Others SC Application No 128/91.

  296. 296.

    Ibid.

  297. 297.

    Wattegedera Wijebanda v Conservator General of Forest and Eight Others SC Application No 118/2004.

  298. 298.

    Ibid.

  299. 299.

    S Puvimanasinghe(n 294) 42.

  300. 300.

    Lisa Vanhala, ‘The Comparative Politics of Courts and Climate Change’ (2013) 22(3) Env. Politics 447–474.

  301. 301.

    Meredith Wilensky, ‘Climate Change in the Courts, An Assessment of Non-U.S. Climate Litigation’ (2015) 26 Duke Envt’l. L.& Pol. F 131–179, 175–177.

  302. 302.

    Ibid.

  303. 303.

    David Markell and JB Ruhl, ‘An Empirical Assessment of Climate Change In The Courts: A New Jurisprudence or Business As Usual?’ (2012) 64(1) Fla L Rev, 17–86, 77.

  304. 304.

    Hans Gunter Brauch and others, Facing Global Environmental Change: Environmental, Human, Energy, Food (Springer 2009) 303.

  305. 305.

    Neeta Lal, ‘Climate Migrants Lead Mass Migration to India’s Cities’ Relief World (26 July 2016) https://reliefweb.int/report/india/climate-migrants-lead-mass-migration-india-s-cities accessed 17 December 2017 (migration from drought hit Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh and migration from flood prone Uttarakhand to Delhi are examples of intra-state migration in India).

  306. 306.

    Paulina Tandiono, ‘Legal Conundrum in the Plight of Pacific Island Countries: Climate Change, Displacement and Human Rights’ (M.Sc. Thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science 2016) 16.

  307. 307.

    Mary Christina Wood and Charles W Woodward IV, ‘Atmospheric Trust Litigation and the Constitutional Right to a Healthy Climate System: Judicial Recognition at Last’ (2016) 6(2) Wash. J. Envt’l L & pol’y 634–683.

  308. 308.

    See generally Jeff Handmaker and others (Eds), Advancing Refugee Protection in South Africa (1st edn, Berghahn Books 2011) 1–8.

  309. 309.

    Sebastien Malo, ‘Climate refugees in South Asia need Protection, Advocates Say’ Thomson Reuters (9 December 2016) https://in.reuters.com/article/asia-climate-migrants/climate-refugees-in-south-asia-need-protection-advocates-say-idINKBN13X2PK accessed 28 March 2018.

  310. 310.

    Ibid.

  311. 311.

    UN reports, ‘As ‘most disaster-prone region,’ Asia-Pacific needs risk-sensitive development’ UN News (10 March 2016) https://news.un.org/en/story/2016/03/523982-most-disaster-prone-region-asia-pacific-needs-risk-sensitive-development-un accessed 26 March 2018.

  312. 312.

    See generally for comparative approach of judical statement on asylum practice Andrew I Schoenholtz, Philip G Schrag and Jaya Ramji-Nogales, ‘Refugee Roulette: Disparities in Asylum Adjudication’ (2007) 61 Stan. L. Rev 295–412.

  313. 313.

    Sean Rehaag, ‘Troubling Patterns in Canadian Refugee Adjudication’ (2008) 39 Ottawa L. Rev

    335–365.

  314. 314.

    UNEP, ‘The Role of the Judiciary in Promoting Environmental Governance and the Rule of Law, Global Environmental Governance: the Post-Johannesburg Agenda’ (New Haven 23–25 October 2003) 3–12 www.academia.edu/4624916/The_Role_of_the_Judiciary_in_Promoting_Environmental_Governance_and_the_Rule_of_Law_Lal_Kurukulasuriya_Chief_Environmental_Law_Programme_UNEP_Prepared_for_Global_Environmental_Governance_the_Post-Johannesburg_Agenda accessed 25 April 2018.

  315. 315.

    Report of the Global Judges Symposium on Sustainable Development and the Role of Law, 2002 UNEP/GC/22/INF/24, https://www.eufje.org/images/DocDivers/Johannesburg%20Principles.pdf accessed 10 April 2018.

  316. 316.

    Ibid; see also Brian Preston, ‘The Role of the Judiciary in Promoting Sustainable Development: The Experience of Asia and the Pacific’ (2005) 9 Asia Pac. J. Env. L 109, 113–14.

  317. 317.

    Ibid.

  318. 318.

    The meeting for South Asian countries was organized in collaboration with the South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme (SACEP) at Colombo in Sri Lanka in July 1997.

  319. 319.

    Asian Judges Network to Strengthen Environmental Law Enforcement, https://www.adb.org/news/asian-judges-network-strengthen-environmental-law-enforcement accessed 16 April 2018.

  320. 320.

    MC Mehta v Union of India (Taj Trapezium case) AIR 1988 SC 1037.

  321. 321.

    MC Mehta v Union of India (Ganges Pollution case) AIR 1988 SC 1115.

  322. 322.

    Concerned Residents of Manila Bay v MMDA GR Nos 171947-48 (8 December 2008) (Philippines).

  323. 323.

    Bandhua Mukti Morcha v Union of India AIR 1984 SC 802; Concerned Residents of Manila Bay v MMDA GR Nos 171947-48 (8 December 2008) (Philippines).

  324. 324.

    Vineet Narain v Union of India AIR 1996 SC 3386.

  325. 325.

    Bulankulama v Secretary, Ministry of Industrial Development (Eppawela case) Application No 884/99 (Supreme Court of Sri Lanka).

  326. 326.

    Constitution of People’s Republic of Bangladesh (141) art 31.

  327. 327.

    Jona Razzaque, (n 146).

  328. 328.

    Mohiuddin Farooque v Bangladesh 1997 BLD (AD) 1.

  329. 329.

    Shehla Zia (n 253).

  330. 330.

    The European Union network for the implementation and enforcement of environmental law is a network of national inspectors, formed in 1992. For more information, see: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/impel/index.htm.

  331. 331.

    See ‘European Union Forum of Judges for the Environment’, www.eufje.org/ accessed 28 March 2018.

  332. 332.

    See Lawasia, ‘The Law Association for Asia and the Pacific’ http://lawasia.asn.au/ accessed 26 March 2018.

  333. 333.

    News Release, ‘Asian Development Bank, Asian Chief Justices, Judges Propose Network to Promote Environment Justice’ Asian Development Bank (30 July 2010) www.adb.org/news/asian-chief-justices-judges-propose-network-promote-environment-justice accessed 27 March 2018.

  334. 334.

    See George Pring and Catherine Pring, Greening Justice: Creating and Improving Environmental Courts and Tribunals (The Access Initiative 2009) 14–16.

  335. 335.

    Anne-Marie Slaughter and David Zaring, ‘Networking Goes Global: an Update’ (2006) 2 Ann. Renn. Rev. L & Soc. Sci 211–229.

  336. 336.

    Anne-Marie Slaughter, ‘Judicial Globalization’ (2000) 40 Va J. Int’l. L 1104–1124.

  337. 337.

    Chief Justice Corona, ‘Asian Judges and the Environment, Capacity Needs and the Potential for a Network’ Asian Judges Symposium (28–29 July 2010) www.scribd.com/doc/37133068/Renato-Corona-Talking-Points-AsianJudges-and-the-Environment-Capacity-Needs-and-Potential-for-a-Network accessed 28 March 2018.

  338. 338.

    Irum Ahsan and Gregorio Rafael P Bueta, ‘Proceedings of The Fourth South Asia Judicial Roundtable on Environmental Justice’ (Kathmandu 28–29 November 2015) (Asian Development Bank 2016) 53.

  339. 339.

    Kal Raustiala, ‘The Architecture of International Cooperation: Trans-governmental Networks and the Future of International Law’ (2002) 43 Va. J. Int’l. L 1–103.

  340. 340.

    Promoting the Geneva Pledge for Human Rights in Climate Action, http://climaterights.org/our-work/unfccc/geneva-pledge/a accessed 15 march 2018.

  341. 341.

    Silvia Casetta, ‘South-South Cooperation An Emerging Dimension of the Global Response to Climate Change’ in Ed Couzens, Tuula Honkonen and Melissa Lewis (eds), International Environmental Law Making and Diplomacy Review (University of Finland-UNEP Series 2017) 117–125.

  342. 342.

    V Suryanarayan, ‘The need for National Refugee Law’ (2001) 5 ISIL Year Book of International Humanitarian and Refugee Law www.worldlii.org/int/journals/ISILYBIHRL/2001/15.html accessed 20 December 2017.

  343. 343.

    Sidharth Kaushik and Stuti Bhatnagar, ‘Need for Codification of Refugee Laws in India’ (2014) 2(1) IJRA 390–401, 400.

  344. 344.

    BC Nirmal, ‘Refugees and Human Rights’ (2001) 1 ISIL Year Book of International Humanitarian and Refugee Law 94, http://www.worldlii.org/int/journals/ISILYBIHRL/2001/6.html accessed 15 April 2018.

  345. 345.

    B.S. Chimni, ‘The Law and Politics of Regional Solution of the Refugee Problem: The Case of South Asia’ (1998) 4 RCSS Policy Studies, 1–16, 6.

  346. 346.

    Abrar R, Chaudhary, ‘Legal Position of Refugees in South Asia’, FMR 10, 21–13.

  347. 347.

    Ibid.

  348. 348.

    Abrar R, Chaudhary (n 346) 22.

  349. 349.

    Susan Kneebone, ‘Comparative Regional Protection Frameworks for Refugees: Norms and Norm Entrepreneurs’ (2016) 20(2) The Int’l J. Hum. Rts 153–172; Narayan Sharma, ‘Refugee Situation in South Asia: Need of A Regional Mechanism’ (2012) 1(1) Kathmandu Law Review 103, 120.

  350. 350.

    Smrithi Talwar, ‘Building a Regional Consensus on Asylum: The Indian Perspectives’ (2000) 1(2) Bulletin on IHL and Refugee Law 251.

  351. 351.

    Narayan Sharma (n 349) 121.

  352. 352.

    UNHCR, ‘Climate Change and Disasters’ (14 December 2009) www.unhcr.org/climate-change-and-disasters.html accessed 28 March 2018.

  353. 353.

    UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights report on the Relationship Between Climate Change and Human Rights UN Doc A/HRC/10/61 (15 January 2009); Oli Brown and Elec Crawford, Rising Temperatures, Rising Tensions: Climate Change and the Risk of Violent Conflict in the Middle East (International Institute for Sustainable Development 2009) www.iisd.org/pdf/2009/rising_temps_middle_east.pdf accessed 23 December 2017.

  354. 354.

    Shweta Jayawardhan, ‘Vulnerability and Climate Change Induced Human Displacement Consilience’ (2017) 17(1) JSD 103–142, 134.

  355. 355.

    Narayan Subramanian and Johannes Urpelainen, ‘Addressing Cross-Border Environmental Displacement: When Can International Treaties Help?’ (2013) 14(1) Int. Environ Agreem. P, 25–46, 25–46.

  356. 356.

    Asian-African Legal Consultative Organization (AALCO), Bangkok Principles on the Status and Treatment of Refugees (31 December 1966) www.refworld.org/docid/3de5f2d52.html accessed 24 December 2017 (Bangkok Principles).

  357. 357.

    See Pia Oberoi, ‘Regional Initiatives on Refugee Protection in South Asia’ (2001) 3(1) Bulletin on IHL and Refugee Law -193-201.

  358. 358.

    Refugee includes every person who owing to external aggression, occupation, foreign domination or events seriously disturbing public order in either part or in whole of his country of origin or nationality, is compelled to leave his place of habitual residence in order to seek refuge in another place outside his country of origin or nationality under article 1 (2) of the AALCO agreement. article 1 (1) of the AALCO definition is the same as that of the 1951 Refugee Convention definition.

  359. 359.

    Refugee under 1951 Convention is a person who owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it.

  360. 360.

    Subramanian and Urpelainen (n 355) 25–46.

  361. 361.

    Bali Process, ‘Fourth Bali Regional Ministerial conference on People Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons and Related Transnational Crime: Co-Chairs’ Statement’ (March 2011) [16] www.baliprocess.net/UserFiles/baliprocess/File/110330_FINAL_Ministerial_Co-chairs%20statement%20BRMC%20IV(1).pdf accessed 20 March 2018.

  362. 362.

    Madeline Gleeson, ‘Where to From Here? report from the Expert Roundtable on Regional Cooperation and Refugee Protection in the Asia-Pacific’ Andrew and Renata Kaldor Centre for International Refugee Law (2016) 37 www.kaldorcentre.unsw.edu.au/sites/default/files/Where_to_from_here.pdf accessed 20 March 2018.

  363. 363.

    Roger Zetter, Protection in Crisis: Forced Migration and Protection in a Global Era (Washington DC, Migration Policy Institute 2015) 3.

  364. 364.

    Koko Warner, ‘Global Environmental Change and Migration: Governance Challenges’ (2010) 20(3) Glob. Environ. Chang. 402–414, 413.

  365. 365.

    Koko Warner and others, ‘Integrating Human Mobility Issues within National Adaptation Plans, United Nations University’ (2014) Nansen Initiative Joint Policy Brief #2, UNU-EHS Publication Series Policy Brief No 9, 16–18.

  366. 366.

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  1. Faculty of Legal Studies, South Asian University, New Delhi, India

    Stellina Jolly & Nafees Ahmad

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Jolly, S., Ahmad, N. (2019). Climate Refugees: The Role of South Asian Judiciaries in Protecting the Climate Refugees. In: Climate Refugees in South Asia. International Law and the Global South. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3137-4_6

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