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‘Impressionable Students and Excitable Koreans’: Internal Factors in the JCP’s Anti-American Radicalization, 1945–1952

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Student Radicalism and the Formation of Postwar Japan

Part of the book series: New Directions in East Asian History ((NDEAH))

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Abstract

The leftist terrorist incidents of the early 1950s have commonly been characterized as the result of the JCP’s policy of armed revolution formulated under the guidance of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Cominform. However, as this chapter shows, the early anti-American radicalization of JCP members was not primarily caused by external orders or conflicts within the party leadership. Zengakuren students developed a virulently anti-American discourse that the party leadership sought to repress but later adopted after 1951, while Korean League members took part in armed clashes with authorities well before the JCP’s military turn. While the Cominform and CCP’s interventions accelerated the JCP’s radicalization, they should be understood as reinforcing factors reacting to, and building upon, existing tendencies.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    ‘Kyōsantō no bōryoku senjutsu,’ Asahi Shinbun, May 31, 1950.

  2. 2.

    ‘Tokyo Red Rally Barred,’ New York Times, May 31, 1950.

  3. 3.

    Yamanaka Akira, Sengo gakusei undōshi (Tokyo: Gun shuppan, 1981), Chapter 6.

  4. 4.

    Zainichi chōsenjin sōrengokai, Chōsen sōren (Chōsen sōren henshū iinkai, 1991), 15.

  5. 5.

    Nihon kyōsantō no 50 nen (Tokyo: Nihon kyōsantō chūō iinkai shuppankyoku, 1972), 38.

  6. 6.

    Yui Chikai ikō, kaisō, (Tokyo: Yui Chikai tsuitōshū kankōkai, 1987), 72.

  7. 7.

    Wada Haruki, Chōsen sensō zenshi, (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2002); Shimotomai Nobuo, Nihon reisenshi, (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2011). For earlier studies in English, see Rodger Swearingen and Paul Langer, Red Flag in Japan: International Communism in Action 1919–1951, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1952); Robert Scalapino, The Japanese Communist Movement, 1920–1966, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), 85. While Scalapino recognizes that internal factors were at play in the JCP’s radicalization in the early 1950s, he downplays their significance by stressing that ‘official party pronouncements during this period all gave fundamental support to extremist activities.’ For an overview of US Cold War policy in Japan and Asia, see John Dower, ‘Occupied Japan and the Cold War in Asia,’ in John Dower, Japan in War and Peace (New York: New Press, 1993), 155–207. For more context on this period of the US occupation, see John Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1999); Takemae Eiji, The Allied Occupation of Japan (New York: Continuum, 2003).

  8. 8.

    Ōkubo Toshizō, Mattsugu, (Tokyo: Nanpūsha, 1999), 208–209.

  9. 9.

    Mun Gyongsu, ‘Sengo nihon shakai to zainichi chōsenjin,’ Horumon bunka (September 2000): 194.

  10. 10.

    Nakanishi Inosuke, ‘Nihon tennnōsei no datō to tōyō shominzoku no minshuteki dōmei,’ Minshu Chōsen Vol. 4 (July 1946): 25.

  11. 11.

    Yoon Keun Cha, ‘Zainichi’ no seishinshi v.1 (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2015), 122.

  12. 12.

    Ibid., 131.

  13. 13.

    Choi Deokhyo, ‘Crucible of the Post-Empire: Decolonization, Race, and Cold War Politics in US-Japan-Korea Relations, 1945–1952,’ (PhD diss., Cornell University, 2013), 48–52.

  14. 14.

    Chong Young-hwan, “Kaihō chokugo zainichi chōsenjin jieisoshiki ni kansuru ichi kōsatsu: Chōren jichitai wo chūshin ni,’ Chōsenshi kenkyūkai ronbunshū v.44 (2006): 159–169.

  15. 15.

    Okiura Kazuteru, ‘Zengakuren kessei no kokoro to chikara, jō,’ Asahi Jānaru, November 9, 1969, 85.

  16. 16.

    Lee Kyonju, Waga furusato Chejudō (Osaka: Ken’eki sōgō shinbunsha, 1994), 58,70.

  17. 17.

    Tsuboi Toyokichi, Zainichi dohō no ugoki (Tokyo: Jiyū seikatsusha, 1975), 37.

  18. 18.

    Oh Gyusang, Dokyumento zainichi chōsenjin renmei, (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2009), 26–29.

  19. 19.

    Kim Duyong, ‘Nihon ni okeru chōsenjin mondai,’ Zen’ei (February 1946): 14–18.

  20. 20.

    ‘Taidan: waga sokoku no kensetsu wo kataru,’ Minshu Chōsen (June 1946): 24. Kim Cheon-hae returned to Korea shortly before the outbreak of the Korean War.

  21. 21.

    Tsuboi, Zainichi dohō no ugoki, 40–41. Yoon, ‘Zainichi’ no seishinshi v.1, 124.

  22. 22.

    Kim Duyong, ‘Chōsenjin undō no tadashii hatten no tameni,’ Zen’ei Vol. 14 (March 1947): 18.

  23. 23.

    Kim Duyong, ‘Chōsenjin undō wa tenkan shitsutsu aru,’ Zen’ei Vol. 16 (May 1947): 39.

  24. 24.

    Pak Kyonsik, Kaihōgo zainichi chōsenjin undōshi (Tokyo: San’ichi shobō, 1989), 30.

  25. 25.

    Mun Gyongsu, ‘Sengo nihon shakai to zainichi chōsenjin,’ 196.

  26. 26.

    Higuchi Yūichi, Kim Cheon-hae: Zainichi chōsenjin shakai undōka no shōgai (Tokyo: Shakai hyōronsha, 2014), 104–106.

  27. 27.

    Yoon, ‘Zainichi’ no seishinshi v.1, 148.

  28. 28.

    Tsuboi, Zainichi dohō no ugoki, 40,267.

  29. 29.

    Wada Haruki, Chōsen sensō (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1995), 114.

  30. 30.

    Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War v.1 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981).

  31. 31.

    Choi, ‘Crucible of the Post-Empire: Decolonization, Race, and Cold War Politics in US-Japan-Korea Relations, 1945–1952,’ 157–158.

  32. 32.

    Pak Kyon-sik ed., Kaihōgo no zainichi chōsenjin undō v.9 (Kawasaki: Ajia mondai kenkyūjo, 1983), 26–27.

  33. 33.

    Kim Tae-gi, Sengo nihon seiji to zainichi chōsenjin mondai, (Tokyo: Keisō shobō, 1997), 304–306.

  34. 34.

    Ibid., 313.

  35. 35.

    Kawashima Takane ed., Beigun senryōka no hansen heiwa undō (Tokyo: Gendaishiryō shuppan, 2000), 5.

  36. 36.

    After imperial Japan annexed Korea in 1910, Koreans were considered Japanese subjects externally but non-Japanese (gaichijin) internally through the household registry system. Robert Rickett traces the shifts in GHQ and Japanese policies regarding Korean nationality after the dissolution of the Japanese empire into the following phases: 1. Treatment as refugees (from August 1945 to early 1947); 2. Management through the Alien Registration Ordinance wherein Koreans could be treated as both Japanese and Korean nationals (from May 1947 to March 1948); 3. A more stringent policy to keep the unruly minority down, stemming from the violent protests over Korean schools (from April 1948 to early 1950); 4. The culmination of the occupation-era management of Koreans resulting in their being stripped of Japanese nationality with the regaining of Japan’s independence (from June 1950 to April 1952). Robert Rickett, ‘Chōsen sensō zengo ni okeru zainichi chōsenjin seisaku,’ in Ōnuma Hisao ed., Chōsen sensō to nihon (Tokyo: Shinkansha, 2006), 186–199.

  37. 37.

    ‘Ilbon minju hyeongmyeong e chamga ha ja!!’ Haeban Shinmun, February 1, 1947.

  38. 38.

    Pak Kyongsik ed., Nihon kyōsantō to chōsen mondai (Tokyo: Ajia mondai kenkyūjo, 1991), 109–111.

  39. 39.

    ‘Shirei dai 140 gō tsuiki,’ in Sengo shakai undo mikōkan shiryōshū kankō iinkai ed., Sengo nihon kyōsantō kankei shiryōshū, Reel 4-0214.

  40. 40.

    For an overview of this incident, see Hiromitsu Inokuchi, ‘Korean ethnic schools in occupied Japan, 1945–52,’ in Sonia Ryang ed., Koreans in Japan: Critical Voices from the Margin, (London: Routledge, 2000), 140–156. On the perceptions GHQ members held of Koreans and their 1948 protests over ethnic education, see Mark Caprio, ‘The Cold War Explodes in Kobe—The 1948 Korean Ethnic School ‘Riots’ and US Occupation Authorities,’ The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus, Vol.6.11, November 24, 2008. For an analysis extending to recent times of the interactions of nationalisms surrounding Koreans in Japan, see Apichai W. Shipper, ‘Nationalisms of and Against Zainichi Koreans in Japan,’ Asian Politics & Policy, Volume 2, Number 1 (January/March 2010): 55–75.

  41. 41.

    Kim, Sengo nihon seiji to zainichi chōsenjin mondai, 382.

  42. 42.

    Kobayashi Tomoko, ‘GHQ no zainichi chōsenjin ninshiki ni kansuru ichikōsatsu,’ Chōsenshi kenkyūkai ronbunshū (1994): 172–175.

  43. 43.

    Kim Kyong-hae ed., Zainichi chōsenjin minzoku kyōiku yōgo tōsō shiryōshū (Tokyo: Heibunsha, 1988), 449–450.

  44. 44.

    ‘Japanese Officials’ Bravery Lauded by Lt. Gen. Eichelberger.’ April 29, 1948. Section 3-402/NNDG No.775017. Kenseishiryōshitsu, National Diet Library.

  45. 45.

    ‘Red Revolution Tactics Denied.’ April 28, 1948. Section 3-402/NNDG No.775011. Kenseishiryōshitsu, National Diet Library.

  46. 46.

    ‘Shirei 244 gō,’ in Sengo shakai undo mikōkan shiryōshū kankō iinkai ed., Sengo nihon kyōsantō kankei shiryōshū, Reel 4-0379.

  47. 47.

    Tsuboi Toyokichi, Zainichi dōhō no ugoki, 60–61.

  48. 48.

    Oh Gyusang, Dokyumento zainichi chōsenjin renmei, 58.

  49. 49.

    ‘Shirei dai 318 gō,’ in Sengo shakai undo mikōkan shiryōshū kankō iinkai ed., Sengo nihon kyōsantō kankei shiryōshū, Reel 4-0478.

  50. 50.

    Oh, Dokyumento zainichi chōsenjin renmei, 66.

  51. 51.

    Kobayashi Tomoko, ‘GHQ no zainichi chōsenjin ninshiki ni kansuru ichikōsatsu,’ 179.

  52. 52.

    Kim Tae Ki, Sengo nihon seiji to zainichi chōsenjin mondai, 498–502. Kang Sang Jung recounts one such raid in Kumamoto that he witnessed as a child: ‘Occasionally, when I was four or five years old, I would witness raids by excise officers on the illegal brewing operations. For some reason, I vividly remember one scene of a line of trucks coming up the hill towards the rickety huts which served as stills where the moonshine was brewed. The whole settlement was thrown into turmoil, like a hive of angry bees. I can still hear the cries of ‘aigo’ [alas!] echoing across the hillside. I shall never forget the sounds of anger and grief in the voices of those people whose meagre means of livelihood were about to be destroyed. In my childish mind, I formed the sense that we were somehow living in an outlaw world.’ Kang Sang Jung, ‘Memories of a Zainichi Korean Childhood,’ The Asia-Pacific Journal Japan Focus Vol.5.2 (February 2, 2007), 2.

  53. 53.

    Kim, Sengo nihon seiji to zainichi chōsenjin mondai, 543–544. Choi, ‘Crucible of the Post-Empire,’ 209.

  54. 54.

    ‘Chōren kaisan no hamon wo saguru,’ Senpū (October 1949): 8.

  55. 55.

    Tsuboi, Zainichi dōhō no ugoki, 284.

  56. 56.

    The Shimoyama, Mitaka, and Matsukawa incidents took place in quick succession to each other from July to August 1949. In the Shimoyama incident, the president of the National Railway Shimoyama Sadanori disappeared on his way to work and was later found dead on a railway track. In the Mitaka and Matsukawa incidents, suspected sabotage led to fatal train derailments. National Railway being a hotbed of militant labor, JCP terrorism was suspected. To this day, the truth behind the incidents remains unclear and the three incidents are known as the ‘three great National Railway mysteries.’

  57. 57.

    Zainichi chōsenjin dantai jūyō shiryōshū (Tokyo: Kohokusha, 1975), 49–50.

  58. 58.

    ‘Molji annun wonjeon tong-il,’ Haeban Shinmun, January 1, 1950.

  59. 59.

    ‘Nam choseon inmin haksal bantae! Yi Seungman e mugi gong geup hantae!’ Haeban Shinmun, April 3, 1950.

  60. 60.

    Nishimura Hideki, Ōsaka de tatakatta chōsen sensō (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2004), 137.

  61. 61.

    Zainichi chōsenjin dantai jūyō shiryōshū, 50–52.

  62. 62.

    See for example, Ko Samyon, Ikirukoto no imi, seishun hen – gekiryū wo yuku (Tokyo: Chikuma bunko, 1997), 106–128.

  63. 63.

    Kōan chōsachō, Sengo gakusei undōshi, March 1966, 5.

  64. 64.

    Shiryō sengo gakusei undō v.1, 180–181.

  65. 65.

    Ibid., 259.

  66. 66.

    Miyamoto Kenji, ‘Atarashii seichō no tameni,’ Zen’ei (August 1948): 3.

  67. 67.

    Shiryō sengo gakusei undō v.1, 227–229.

  68. 68.

    Ibid., 246–250.

  69. 69.

    Shiryō sengo gakusei undō v.1, 247–252. Despite such precautions, in general the JCP cells’ control over key university student governments was an open secret. In his May directive, Okiura advised that cell members should respond to the common criticism of JCP control by ‘asking back sharply why it was wrong for the JCP to provide leadership.’

  70. 70.

    Ibid., 251–255.

  71. 71.

    Okiura, ‘Zengakuren kessei no kokoro to chikara, jō,’ 90.

  72. 72.

    ‘Gakusei suto no mondai,’ Tenbō (September 1949): 39. Okiura Kazuteru, ‘Gakusei saibō wa dō katsudō subekika,’ Zen’ei (March 1949): 31.

  73. 73.

    Shiryō sengo gakusei undō v.1, 262.

  74. 74.

    Ibid., 302.

  75. 75.

    Andō, Sengo nihon kyōsantō shiki, 73–75.

  76. 76.

    Ōno, Zengakuren keppūroku, 65.

  77. 77.

    ‘Gakusei suto no mondai,’ 46.

  78. 78.

    Nihon kyōsantō chūō iinkai 50 nen mondai bunken shiryō henshū iinkai ed., Nihon kyōsantō 50 nen mondai shiryōshū v.3. (Tokyo: Shin nihon shuppan, 1994), 1–17.

  79. 79.

    Yoshikawa Yūichi, Shimin undō no shukudai (Tokyo: Shisō no kagakusha, 1991), 27–28.

  80. 80.

    Andō Jimbei, Sengo nihon kyōsantō shiki, 95,99.

  81. 81.

    Shiryō sengo gakusei undō v.1, 19–51.

  82. 82.

    Takei Teruo, Sō to shiteno gakusei undō (Tokyo: Seiunsha, 2005), 274.

  83. 83.

    For Eells’ evolving views on communism in Japanese education, see Ruriko Kumano, ‘Anticommunism and Academic Freedom: Walter C. Eells and the ‘Red Purge’ in Occupied Japan,’ History of Education Quarterly (November 2010): 513–537. Hans Martin Kramer has shown that the Red Purge in Japanese higher education was not simply the result of Eells’ orders. Hans Martin Kramer, ‘Just Who Reversed the Course? The Red Purge in Higher Education during the Occupation of Japan,’ Social Science Japan Journal (April 2005): 1–18. Nevertheless, for Zengakuren students eager to conduct their ‘anti -imperial struggle,’ Eells provided the perfect target. The common practice to attribute the Red Purge solely to occupation policy, as well as the term ‘Red Purge’ itself, seems to have originated with the nationalistic narrative of resistance developed during the course of these protests. The term does not appear in mainstream periodicals until the fall of 1950.

  84. 84.

    Shiryō sengo gakusei undō v.2, 86. Panpan referred to prostitutes serving the American occupation forces. ‘Panpan politics’ was a term favored by student radicals to denounce the subservient pro-American policies of the Japanese government.

  85. 85.

    Ibid., 92.

  86. 86.

    Andō, Sengo nihon kyōsantō shiki, 102–103. Kōan chōsachō, Sengo gakusei undōshi, 35.

  87. 87.

    Shiryō sengo gakusei undō v.2, 150–159.

  88. 88.

    Takei Teruo, Sō to shiteno gakusei undō, p.308.

  89. 89.

    Ibid., 310.

  90. 90.

    Sakamoto Yoshikazu, ‘Nihon ni okeru kokusai reisen to kokunai reisen,’ in Chikyū jidai no kokusai seiji (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1990), 115–116.

  91. 91.

    Pak Kyongsik ed., Nihon kyōsantō to chōsen mondai, 122.

  92. 92.

    ‘Kenryoku kakutoku no buryoku kakumei no tame ni tō wo borushevikika seyo,’ Heiwa to Dokuritsu, November 4, 1950.

  93. 93.

    Choi. ‘Crucible of the Post-Empire,’ Chapter 2.

  94. 94.

    Dower, Embracing Defeat.

  95. 95.

    Nihon kyōsantō chūō iinkai 50 nen mondai bunken shiryō henshū iinkai ed., Nihon kyōsantō 50 nen mondai shiryōshū v.3, 14.

  96. 96.

    Shimotomai, Nihon reisenshi, 196–213.

  97. 97.

    Yui Chikai ikō, kaisō, 21.

  98. 98.

    Wakita Ken’ichi, Chōsen sensō to Suita Hirakata jiken (Tokyo: Akashi shoten, 2004).

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  1. Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan

    Kenji Hasegawa

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  1. Kenji Hasegawa
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Hasegawa, K. (2019). ‘Impressionable Students and Excitable Koreans’: Internal Factors in the JCP’s Anti-American Radicalization, 1945–1952. In: Student Radicalism and the Formation of Postwar Japan. New Directions in East Asian History. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1777-4_3

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1777-4_3

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