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Blending of Synthetic Kerosene and Conventional Kerosene

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Biokerosene

Abstract

According to the current standards synthetic kerosene must be blended with conventional hydrocarbons or Jet A or Jet A-1 before it can be released as jet fuel. Besides a certain volumetric limit jet fuel specifications define a set of (additional) properties a blend must fulfill for certification. Thus, a proper selection of matching synthetic and conventional fuel batches for blending (“matching blendstock”) will be of significant importance at some point in the future aviation fuel supply chain. If the properties of the involved batches are unfavorable, the maximum allowable blending ratio may not be achievable. Yet from a technical point of view, even blending ratios beyond the currently specified limit could be possible, if two favorable batches were chosen.

Surveys have shown that properties of conventional kerosene vary considerably within the prescribed range of the specification. Against this background this chapter first provides an overview of the main types of molecules present in kerosene in order to illustrate their influence on fuel properties. Afterwards conventional and synthetic kerosene are characterized in detail. Finally, the most relevant properties for blending are identified for a wide variety of synthetic and conventional kerosene.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    This only applies to Jet A or Jet A-1 containing synthetic kerosene.

  2. 2.

    Alkane and paraffin are synonyms.

  3. 3.

    The linear alkanes are commonly referred to as n-alkanes while the branched ones are called iso-alkanes. As a general rule iso-alkanes are preferred as their freezing point is lower than that of their linear counterparts of the same carbon number.

  4. 4.

    When compared to other hydrocarbons with the same carbon number.

  5. 5.

    The heating value describes the energy content on a mass basis. On a volume basis, alkanes have the least heating value while aromatics offer the highest.

  6. 6.

    With growing demand of ultra-low sulfur diesel, the sulfur content of kerosene may also be reduced. Severe hydrotreatment is a common process to desulfurize diesel which usually removes other heteroatoms, too.

  7. 7.

    Straight-run kerosene is obtained from crude oil by atmospheric distillation.

  8. 8.

    The freezing point can be adjusted to either Jet A or Jet A-1

  9. 9.

    The share of cyclo-alkanes is commensurate to the fraction of n- and iso-alkanes [14].

  10. 10.

    The primary viscosity requirement (at −20 °C) applies to all Jet A-1 fuels regardless of origin.

  11. 11.

    In the HBBA-report net heat of combustion was referred to as specific energy. Other publications refer to the higher heating value.

  12. 12.

    Furthermore thermal stability and corrosion, existent gum, net heat of combustion, flash point and smoke point were examined and possible interdependencies assessed. However, these implied no restrictions regarding the achievable blending ratios. Though, for the sake of completeness, it should be noted that the sample of neat SIP did not fulfil the existent gum requirement while neat FT fuel (Coal-to-Liquids) did not meet the obligation regarding thermal stability. In spite of that, all of their evaluated blends conform to specification.

  13. 13.

    Fluorocarbon rubber and fluorosilicone rubber are hardly conformed.

  14. 14.

    In the past, there had been leakage issues after changing the fuel grade. When the US Airforce moved from JP4 to JP8 in the 1980’s, severe leakages were observed. The problem was solved by replacing the old seals against new ones – it was not necessary to change the seal material in this case (CRC 2004).

  15. 15.

    Even ASTM D7566 indicates that some batches of conventional Jet A or Jet A-1 produced to ASTM D1655 might not meet the requirements applicable to Jet A or Jet A-1 containing synthesizes hydrocarbons.

  16. 16.

    On the ground, fuel transactions are conducted in volume related units. In the cockpit, fuel indications are mass related. Conversion is carried out based on the actual density.

  17. 17.

    Aircraft and fuel on board are exposed to severe changes in temperature. As a result, jet fuel expands or contracts leading to changes in fuel volume while the fuel mass remains unaffected. In flight operations, energy consumption is therefore expressed on a mass basis – e.g. fuel flow in lbs/h or kg/h.

  18. 18.

    The resulting viscosity of a binary blend equals a logarithmic function of the blending ratio (Grundberg-Nissan-Equation).

  19. 19.

    Yet, an important prerequisite is that the conventional blending component fulfills this requirement, too. Otherwise its impacts on the blend may be disadvantageous.

  20. 20.

    In [2] this has been evaluated by adding long-chain compounds to jet fuel samples.

  21. 21.

    Although deviations are allowed if agreed upon by supplier and purchaser.

  22. 22.

    The authors indicate, that some laboratories may not be equipped to accurately measure extremely low freezing points. The actual freezing point may therefore be even lower.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Hamburg University of Technology, Institute of Environmental Technology and Energy Economics, Hamburg, Germany

    Jan Pechstein

  2. Deutsche Lufthansa AG, Frankfurt, Germany

    Alexander Zschocke

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  1. Jan Pechstein
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  2. Alexander Zschocke
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Correspondence to Jan Pechstein .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Environmental Technology and Energy Economics, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany

    Martin Kaltschmitt

  2. Institute of Environmental Technology and Energy Economics, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany

    Ulf Neuling

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Pechstein, J., Zschocke, A. (2018). Blending of Synthetic Kerosene and Conventional Kerosene. In: Kaltschmitt, M., Neuling, U. (eds) Biokerosene. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-53065-8_25

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-53065-8_25

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