Abstract
In the previous chapter, the different variants of creationism were presented as concepts or, more specifically, as both different and partly overlapping systems of interpreting the world that also contain a specific perspective of the opposing interpretation system of secular science and, in particular, evolutionary theory. Sociologically, these ideas become relevant (and apprehensible) only when they are expressed via social action (Weber 1978:3–62). It is, therefore, necessary to ask how the social representation of creationism is structured. Who are the creationists, how do they organize themselves, how do they try to make their views public and defend themselves against criticism?
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Notes
- 1.
Generally speaking, „Theistic Evolution“ means the view that evolution happens as a natural process as described by science, but that it was set in motion and/or is guided by God. Today, this view is held by the largest (mainline) churches in the United States.
- 2.
- 3.
Berkman and Plutzer 2010, p. 39 arrive at this conclusion after giving an overview of survey results that treat the question whether creationism should be taught in public schools. This means that the authors assert that to support the teaching of creationism is also to accept its truth claims.
- 4.
The republican presidential candidates Sam Brownback, Mike Huckabee and Tom Tancredo answered in the negative when asked during a debate in 2007, whether they “believe in evolution”, see Cohen 2007. During the 2012 presidential election campaign, the Republican candidate Rick Perry drew attention with a statement against evolutionary theory, see Huffington Post 2011.
- 5.
The well-known conservative journalist Bill O’Reilly came forward with statements supporting an Intelligent Design perspective multiple times. For instance, he stated that there is no scientific explanation for the tides. See the video interview at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wb3AFMe2OQY (07.05.2015).
- 6.
The attorney and conservative activist Andrew Schlafly was in a prolonged conflict with the evolutionary biologist Richard Lenski, who had observed a rare useful mutation in bacteria. Schlafly, motivated by anti-evolutionary skepticism, demanded Lenski’s laboratory files and notes, which he denied to him on the grounds that he was not a member of the scientific community. The “Lenski Affair” is documented at Rational Wiki (n.d.-a)
- 7.
- 8.
- 9.
„Strategy“refers to the way in which the organizations enforce their views within the American society at large, or in certain parts of it, for instance, in certain religious milieus. In Chap. 6, I will present a sociological theory of the creationist controversy, which entails a closer look at the strategies and means of the organizations.
- 10.
An exception to this is the commitment of Hugh Ross, the head of Reasons to Believe, to the early Intelligent Design movement, which is illustrated by his participation in the 1996 Intelligent Design Conference ‘Mere Creation’. Ross, however, withdrew from the movement after a short time, and today Reasons to Believe distances itself clearly from Intelligent Design. See Ross 1998, but Rana 2010.
- 11.
Progressive Creationism is part of a history of ideas of its own. St. Augustine first spoke of creatio continua. See Peters and Hewlett 2003, pp. 24–25., and passim.
- 12.
The first editions were published in 1963, and within a few years they were used in about half of all American high schools. Within ten years, 48 states (except Mississippi and Alabama) had placed the BSCS books on their lists of textbooks (adoption lists) to be used. See Park 1997, pp. 83 & 90.
- 13.
- 14.
The following brief summary of the history of the Institute for Creation Research and Answers in Genesis is elaborated in detail in Numbers 2006, pp. 208–238 and pp. 312–320 (on the Institute for Creation Research) and pp. 400–421 passim (on Answers in Genesis). For the Institute for Creation Research, see also Morris himself in Morris 1984, pp. 235–272.
- 15.
According to Park (1997, p. 69), the Institute for Creation Research sold over one million copies of a total of 60 publications during the first decade of its existence.
- 16.
Act 590/R.S. 17:286.1 to 286.7, Balanced Treatment of Creation-Science and Evolution-Science in Public Schools.
- 17.
For this process there is a detailed documentation at Antievolution.org 2005a.
- 18.
“The Institute for Creation Research School of Biblical Apologetics is a formal education arm of the Institute for Creation Research. SOBA provides graduate-level training in biblical education and apologetics, especially emphasizing the theological issues tied to Genesis 1–11, through its current Master of Christian Education (M.C.Ed.) degree that features a joint major in Biblical Education and Apologetics. Also, the M.C.Ed. program currently provides a choice of four academic minors to allow concentrated study of different areas of biblical education and apologetics.” (Institute for Creation Research 2016a, p. 6.).
- 19.
The program is entitled The Creationist Worldview. See Institute for Creation Research 2016b.
- 20.
Ibid, p. 400. The latest transfer of personnel is in the other direction: the former head of the astronomy program at Answers in Genesis, Jason Lisle, has been Director of Physical Sciences at the Institute of Creation Research since 2012. See Institute for Creation Research 2012.
- 21.
For this purpose, the Institute for Creation Research offers its own station finder, which can be used to determine channels and send times from its programs. For instance, the service records 48 stations in California, and 54 stations in Texas. See Institute for Creation Research n.d.-b.
- 22.
Scott (2005, p. 103) still refers to Answers in Genesis as the second-largest Young Earth organization and justifies this estimate on the basis of the organization’s annual earnings, which was around US $ five million in 2000. In 2017, however, revenue had risen to more than 21 million US $, which is more than three times the earnings of the Institute of Creation Research. See Charity Navigator 2017a, b.
- 23.
- 24.
See Answers in Genesis 2018c. In addition to the Vacation Bible Schools organized by Answers in Genesis, one can also purchase material packages on the site to create one’s own summer camp.
- 25.
- 26.
DeYoung 2007. There is less dust in the universe than assumed by proponents of this argument, so the relatively thin dust layer would also be compatible with an old moon.
- 27.
Purdom 2008. Answers in Genesis argues here that the strict statement that there are no useful mutations is wrong, since it is always necessary to look at the context. Specific mutations increased the body’s defenses against HIV but made them more susceptible to other viral diseases. The concession of this point is important because the question of the existence of useful mutations is a central point in all variants of the critique of evolution theory. Thus, unlike the question of the dust layer on the moon, it is not linked to a Young Earth context, but is also relevant to Young and Old Earth arguments.
- 28.
- 29.
See The Talk Origins Archive (2005). He states: „I believe that a scientifically sound creationist view of origins is not only possible, but is to be preferred over the evolutionary view.”
- 30.
The organization still exists, and maintains close contacts with the Center for Science and Culture (see below). In fact, it is now officially integrated into the Discovery Institute, the parent organization of the Center for Science and Culture, as a DI press imprint. See Discovery Institute Press n.d.
- 31.
- 32.
Chapman had previously been Secretary of State in the State of Washington, had directed the Census Bureau of the United States in the 1980s, and worked as an assistant to Ronald Reagan. See Numbers 2006, p. 381.
- 33.
- 34.
Dembski discusses whether there is intelligent design and how one can identify it from a philosophical-logical standpoint (Dembski 1998b). His best-known contribution to the theory of Intelligent Design is the “explanatory filter”, through which design can be found in nature (Dembski 1998b). See the criticism of Scott 2005, pp. 120–121.
- 35.
The center is named after Michael Polanyi, a Hungarian-British scientist who criticized, among other things, reductionist explanations of the biological cell. Cf. Polanyi 1968, where he already speaks of biological irreducibility.
- 36.
The National Center for Science Education (see Sect. 4.2.3) summarizes this development as follows: „So the Michael Polanyi Center was stripped of its name, placed squarely under the jurisdiction of a philosophy and religion administrative unit, subjected to a faculty advisory committee, and not very subtly put on notice that ID lacked status as a scholarly enterprise.” (Scott 2000b).
- 37.
„My ideas about irreducible complexity and intelligent design are entirely my own. They certainly are not in any sense endorsed by either Lehigh University in general or the Department of Biological Sciences in particular. In fact, most of my colleagues in the Department strongly disagree with them.” (Lehigh University n.d.)
- 38.
Here a social ethical impetus of the program is already apparent. The points which these publications are intended to cover include “sex, gender issues, medicine, law, and religion” (p. 4).
- 39.
Signature in the Cell, the Opus Magnum of the Director of the Center for Science and Culture, Stephen C. Meyer (Meyer 2009), was included in the Books of the Year list of the Times Literary Supplement.
- 40.
Dembski and Wells 2007.
- 41.
On the website of Answers in Genesis, Dawkins is mentioned almost 600 times, on the homepage of the Discovery Institute, which also houses the Center for Science and Culture, his name appears almost 500 times. (as of April 24, 2017).
- 42.
MacNeill 2008.
- 43.
„These are the folks who help provide much of the information and subject matter expertise found on this server.”
- 44.
According to Ron Numbers (personal communication), the termination of the journal was linked with the death of David Weyerhaeuser, who had supported it financially.
- 45.
See Scott 2005, p. 103.
- 46.
Moore 1981.
- 47.
Francis 2000. On irreducible complexity, see Sect. 2.2.
- 48.
Helder 2000.
- 49.
According to its director Douglas Axe, who had already been a member of the Center for Science and Culture until 2000, the Center provided “significant financing” for the Biologic Institute. See Forrest 2007:23.
- 50.
Ibid.
- 51.
Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture [1998], p. 4.
- 52.
Chang 2005.
- 53.
Glenn Branch, personal communication, September 13, 2012.
- 54.
Biologic Institute 2018.
- 55.
Illustra Media 2015.
- 56.
National Center for Science Education 2003. The homepage of Discovery Media is now only available through the Internet Archive. In a stored version from the 2002 period, one can see films offered such as Heaven and Hell, The Miracle and Power of Prayer, The End Times and Amazing Grace. See Discovery Media Productions 2002.
- 57.
Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture [1998], p. 4.
- 58.
Dorick 2005.
- 59.
Berkman and Plutzer 2010, p. 25.
- 60.
An indicator of the stability of the institutions is their financial health. In the case of the Discovery Institute, annual revenues between 2003 and 2010, that is, before, during, and after the critical Kitzmiller judgment, remained relatively stable. In 2005, there was a drop by about one third to just under 3 million US $, which is mainly due to lower donations. However, the financial situation was already recovering in the following year. In 2010 the level of 2003 was again reached, about 4.3 million US $. The income of the Institute for Creation Research is similarly stable. Answers in Genesis even managed to quadruple its revenues between 2001 and 2011 from approximately 5 million US $ to over 19 million US $. For detailed financial information for all three organizations, see Charity Navigator 2017a, b. c.
- 61.
Whitcomb and Morris 1961, p. xx.
- 62.
Morris 1974, p. iv.
- 63.
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Kaden, T. (2019). Creationist Organizations and Their Activities. In: Creationism and Anti-Creationism in the United States. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99380-5_3
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