Abstract
This chapter draws on ethnography, sociology, human ecology and social architecture in exploring how lives in immediate human geographies were ordered.
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Notes
- 1.
Their two major publications were Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture, published in 1929, and Middletown in Transition: A Study in Cultural Conflicts, published in 1937. These studies grew out of his research at Union Theological School. He was also a professor of sociology at Columbia University. The present author took one of his courses many decades ago.
- 2.
He changed his name to Lewis from Lefkowitz. He argued that the culture of poverty is an adaptation as well as a reaction of the poor to their marginal position in a class -stratified, highly individualistic, capitalistic society. More than two million Jews in the Pale did not adapt by staying in place. They moved.
- 3.
Moshe Rosman, How Jewish Is Jewish History? (The Littman Library of Jewish Civilization in association with Liverpool University Press, 2008).
- 4.
A partial list includes Yaffa Eliach, There Once Was a World: A Nine-Hundred-Year Chronicle of the Shtetl Eishyshok (Boston, 1998); Yohanan Petgrovsky-Shtern, The Golden Age Shtetl: A New History of Jewish Life in East Europe (Princeton, 2014); Gennady Estraikh and Mikhail Krutikov, eds., The Shtetl: Image and Reality (Oxford, 2000); Eva Hoffman, Shtetl: The Life and Death of a Small Town and the World of Polish Jews (Boston, 1997); Gershon D. Hundert, The Jews in a Polish Private Town: The Case of Opatów in the Eighteenth Century (Baltimore, 1992); Samuel Kassow, “Community and Identity in the Interwar Shtetl,” in Yisrael Gutman, Khone Shmeruk, Ezra Mendelsohn, and Jehuda Reinharz, eds., The Jews of Poland Between Two World Wars (Hanover, NH, 1989), 198–220; Dan Miron, A Traveler Disguised (New York, 1973); Dan Miron, The Image of the Shtetl and Other Studies of Modern Jewish Literary Imagination (Syracuse, NY, 2000); Ben-Cion Pinchuk, “The Shtetl: An Ethnic Town in the Russian Empire,” Cahiers du Monde Russe 41.4 (October–December 2000): 495–504; Theo Richmond, Konin: A Quest (New York, 1995); David Roskies, The Jewish Search for a Usable Past (Bloomington, IN, 1999); Diane K. Roskies and David G. Roskies, comps., The Shtetl Book (New York, 1975); Murray J. Rosman, The Lords’ Jews (Cambridge, MA, 1990); Adam Teller, “The Shtetl as an Arena for Polish-Jewish Integration in the Eighteenth Century,” Polin 17 (2004): 25–40; and Mark Zborowski and Elizabeth Herzog, Life Is with People: The Culture of the Shtetl (New York, 1995).
- 5.
His aborted ethnographic questionnaire of more than 2000 questions is well described in Nathaniel Deutsch’s The Jewish Dark Continent: Life and Death in the Russian Pale of Settlement (Harvard University Press, 2011).
- 6.
I am fully aware that other authors will differ if not find fault with what you will read here.
- 7.
But not by urban designers concerned with high-density environments such as Hong Kong. See Robert E. Mitchell “What About Interior Design? Detours in Search of Decent Homes in Suitable Living Environments,” AIA Interior Architecture Newsletter (Spring 2009), available online at http://info.aia.org/nwsltr_int.cfm?pagename=int_a_122007_suitableinteriors; “Decision-Making in the Context of Spatial and Aspatial Processes,” in John Calhoun, ed., Environment and Population: Problems of Adaptation (Praeger, 1983); “Ethnographic and Historical Perspectives on Relationships Between Physical and Socio-Spatial Environments,” Sociological Symposium (Fall 1975); “Some Social Implications of High Density Housing,” American Sociological Review (February 1971); “Residential Patterns and Family Networks : Part I,” International Journal of Sociology of the Family (September 1972); and “Residential Patterns and Family Networks: Part II,” International Journal of Sociology of the Family (March 1973). In the late 1970s, the author also co-designed the highly successful Neighborhood Urban Services Project for Cairo and Alexandria Egypt. This $100-million-plus innovation was partially based on the American Model Cities “Variation” experience. As Florida Governor Reuben Askew’s Executive Director for the Florida Task Force on Housing and Community in the 1970s I was privileged to have access to how a broad array of communities within the State were responding to their housing and socioeconomic challenges. The Governor and the State Legislature followed up this work by creating the Florida Task Force on Marriages and Families, a group that I also initiated and directed. Of course, America is not the Pale, but it helped the author to be aware of other cultures during his long academic and government career in the Far East, the Near East, and Africa. For a pictoral view of lives as lived earlier in America, see Otto Bettmann, The Good Old Days: They Were Terrible! (Random House, 1974).
- 8.
Simon Schama, Belonging: The Story of the Jews 1492–1900 (Penguin, 2017), Chapter 12. Schama’s work is rich with observations and his personal judgments but often minus the expected references to support his many claims. Irving Howe and others can be similarly questioned. Both Howe and Schama authored well-written and challenging overviews that are well-worth reading.
- 9.
For the JewishGen Yizkor Book project that preserves family and community histories, see http://www.jewishgen.org/yizkor/. The table of contents in Dr. Ida Selavan Schwarcz’s Yizker Bikher as Preservers of Family and Community History includes under The First 100 Years: How old is Suwalk? History of the Jewish settlement. Economic conditions. Jews in agriculture . Emigration from Suwalk. Education and Enlightenment . Hibbat Tsiyon (Love of Zion). Jewish labor movement. Institutions, societies, communal workers. Rabbis. Writers. Publishers. Pioneers of the Yiddish -Hebrew press. Correspondents. Cantors. Actors. Folksongs of Suwalk and vicinity. Jews and Christians in the past. Curious episodes. Subscribers. Bibliography. From an old diary. Available online by scrolling down at http://www.jewishgen.org/yizkor/ybinsights.html. I suspect that experts in mass humanities and mass history will be able to mine these books to fill in the many gaps in my own overview and summary.
- 10.
There is an enlarged 1897 map of Vishtinetz that identifies two major east–west streets parallel to the lake front along with perhaps four roads that cut across both these two parallel streets. And there are up to six other cross-cutting roads . Both sides of the two parallel streets have buildings on each side, north and south. Since the sizes of the buildings are unknown, it is not possible to estimate the number of housing or family units along these streets or the smaller number of units in the surrounding area. There were perhaps 100 housing units with few units outside these major roads . The map (that needs to be enlarged) is at http://lithuanianmaps.com/images/1897_KdwR_L24_Wisztyniec_KdRR_78_Mehlkehmen_100K.jpg. This same general source includes maps of other villages.
- 11.
Israel Bartal, “Imagined Geography : The Shtetl, Myth, and Reality,” in Steven Katz, ed., The Shtetl: New Evaluations (New York University Press, 2007).
- 12.
See Xan Brooks “Road to Nowhere: The New Crop of Writers Unearthing the Dark Side of Village Life,” The Guardian (March 3, 2018).
- 13.
We are absent studies of how urban and rural land markets operated in the Pale of Settlement .
- 14.
Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers, p. 10. One might wonder what evidence Howe, an outstanding social and literary critic, had in making this generalization. He took a novelist’s privilege.
- 15.
Eliach, 52. She provides a rather detailed map with the locations of individual homes and buildings. Page 50. Her map-based description differs from Howe’s Pale-wide somewhat nostalgic evidence -free generalization that covers different population groups, settlement sizes, and changes over time.
- 16.
Thomas Hubka, “The Shtetl in Context: The Spatial and Social Organization of Jewish Communities from the Eighteenth-Century Poland,” available online at http://fordham.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1021&context=emw. The author covers Patterns of Settlement, the Spatial and Social Order of the Small Jewish Town, Jewish Community District, and the Synagogue and Jewish District.
- 17.
Alla Sokolova, “The Podolian Shtetl as an Architectural Phenomenon,” in Gennady Estraikh and Mikhail Krutikov, eds., The Shtetl: Image and Reality (Legenda, 2000).
- 18.
For a book on fires, see Cathy A. Frierson, All Russia Is Burning! A Cultural History of Fire and Arson in Late Imperial Russia (University of Washington Press, 2001) and Nigel A. Raab, Democracy Burning? Urban Fire Departments and the Limits of Civil Society in Late Imperial Russia, 1850–1914 (McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2011). My paternal ancestors’ village of Vishtinetz was destroyed by at least one fire. Dostoevsky described a major fire and responses to it in his Demons.
- 19.
Louis Wirth, The Ghetto (University of Chicago, 1956), 57.
- 20.
Don Gussow, Chaia Sonia (Bantam, 1981), 30–31.
- 21.
He also wrote that “[The] older people still spoke Yiddish , but the younger ones spoke German only” (p. 71). That is, some Jews were becoming or already were Pseudo-Prussians.
- 22.
The anthropologist Edward Hall has written on cultural differences in acceptable interpersonal physical space . Members of some cultures interact with one another face-to-face. Others keep their distance from one another. He introduced the concept of Proxemics, the study of human use of space , and the effects that population density has on behavior, communication, and social interaction. This field of research is one branch of several approaches to nonverbal communications that includes haptics (body movement), vocalics (paralanguage), and chronemics (structure of time). To help their field volunteers working in foreign languages and cultures, the Peace Corps produced helpful language and cultural guides. Public markets and other Pale settlements are arenas for different kinds of space such as public, interactional, home, and body territory. Among Hall’s many books are The Silent Language (1959) and The Hidden Dimension (1966). Robert Sommer’s Personal Space: The Behavioral Basis of Design (1969) is in the same general tradition. He wrote that “The concepts of ‘personal space ’ can be distinguished from that of ‘territory’ in several ways. The most important difference is that personal space is carried around while territory is relatively stationary.” That life is a theatre in which actors play parts is one of the many insights that Erving Goffman explored in his The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1956). This long footnote suggests that to understand inter-group relations between Jews and others, one must understand how each group defines different types of space . The present author has drawn on these works in his studies of high-density housing and congestion among different populations around the world.
- 23.
Again, a meta-analysis of these memoirs, novels , memorial books, and court records would help scholars to better map and understand the Pale.
- 24.
Thomas C. Hubka, Resplendent Synagogue: Architecture and Worship in an Eighteenth-Century Polish Community (Brandeis, 2003). “Wooden synagogues built at the intersection of the baroque and classical epochs are exceptional buildings … Wood is employed very creatively in their architecture, with an original harmonization of ethnic and architecture style features, modified forms of different kinds of wooden homes and other sacred buildings or portions of them applied. … there is only one main requirement for synagogue design: it must have 12 windows symbolizing the 12 tribes of Israel.” In a summary of the work by Dr. Marija Rupeikienė, “Nykstantis kultūros paveldas: Lietuvos sinagogų architektūra” [Disappearing Cultural Heritage: The Architecture of Lithuanian Synagogues] (Vilnius, 2003), online at https://www.litvaksig.org/images/custom/Newsletter%20Jewish%20Community%20of%20Lithuania%20Nov%202016.pdf.
- 25.
Based on his example, I made note over the years of what poor Egyptians had on the walls of their homes. There was little in 1963, my first observation, but over the years (ending in 1985) I noticed that the poor had hooks holding their increasing wardrobes, religious and other paraphernalia, photos, and more. Many in my very small informal sample claimed, however, that their lives had worsened over time! Although poor Egyptians often had more space , more income, and more things, their perceived life perspectives were moving in the opposite direction. Some observers refer to this as the revolution of rising expectations. We do not have information on the expectations that different groups and ages of the Pale’s Jews had regarding their housing and residential lives.
- 26.
Paul Britten Austin, 61, 109, 412.
- 27.
Real Estate Tax and Property Tax Lists often yield information about a specific property, such as its size, estimated value, and the tax due. “Sometimes the type of possession of the real estate -- whether ownership, leasehold, or rental is established, and how. Since these lists are compiled based on where people owned property, it may not be a good indication of where they actually lived.” Some Real Estate Owners Lists provide evidence that proves ownership, exactly what is owned and how the property is used, as well as any liens against the property, the value of the property, and a full listing of the entire family living on the property. Some give only the surname and name of the owner. Within this category of files are lists of Jews “who illegally owned property belonging to Christians.” See the LitvakSIG “Tax Lists” for Lithuania at https://www.litvaksig.org/information-and-tools/archives-and-repositories/tax-lists. Similar lists probably exist for other areas of the Pale and thereby allow for both inter- and intra-regional comparisons.
- 28.
Some places even from earliest times did have rudimentary codes. For example, the Code of Hammurabi dated from circa 1772 BC. The 1666 Great Fire of London led to some building controls. But the first modern national building standard was established with the London Building Act of 1844. During the French Second Empire (1852–1870) and the reconstruction of Paris with blocks or apartments, rules limited the height of buildings to five or six stories.
- 29.
Petrovosky-Shtern, 252–254.
- 30.
Petrovosky-Shtern, 263.
- 31.
Milgram invited the author to deliver a paper on the “Sociology of Affect” at one of his many academic conferences in the 1970s. He was evidently interested in my research on congestion , an environment that could be excelerating as well as frustrating. While living in New York City during the 1950s, I found downtown Manhattan pedestrians annoyingly slow walkers on crowded streets but my four years living in very congested Hong Kong streets during the 1960s was often invigorating. My five years of walking the crowded streets of Cairo, Egypt, during the early 1980s gave me the impression that my fellow pedestrians were just there without clear purposes. Milgram also considered that conditions of congestion are the antithesis of social order and one basis for what was labeled the “lonely crowd,” the title of a popular 1950s book by David Riesman, Nathan Glazer, and Reuel Denney. Robert Putman re-labeled and expanded the concept as “bowling alone.”
- 32.
In his 1908 book titled Soziologie, the German sociologist Georg Simmel introduced the concept of the “stranger” as one form of “social distance.”
- 33.
- 34.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1226520/pdf/amjphnation00047-0087.pdf. The present author participated as an expert in the working group that prepared these recommendations.
- 35.
Available online at http://www.aia.org/aiaucmp/groups/aia/documents/pdf/aiab091537.pdf. The abstract read: Studies of density and congestion have provided insights into both attitudes and behavior. The challenge of using these insights for the design of individual buildings and larger community projects has been limited primarily to hospitals, prisons, college dorms, and settings for the elderly. Based on Hong Kong and earlier U.S. experiences, this article discusses how the interior design of small dwelling units can contribute to the policy goal of providing decent homes in suitable living environments.
- 36.
For insights into how kitchens evolved over time, see Sara Pennell, The Birth of the English Kitchen, 1600–1850 (Bloomsbury, 2106).
- 37.
The pseudonym of Shloyme Zanvl Rappoport, author of The Dybbuk, or Between Two Worlds. A Dybbuk is a malicious possessing spirit in Kabbalah and European Jewish folklore. For his YIVO biography, see http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Rapoport_Shloyme_Zaynvl.
- 38.
Nathaniel Deutsch, The Jewish Dark Continent: Life and Death in the Pale of Settlement (Harvard University Press, 2011). For photographs his team took of selected villages, see Eugene M. Avrutin, ed., Photographing the Jewish Nation: Pictures from S. An-sky’s Ethnographic Expeditions (The Tauber Institute Series for the Study of European Jewry, Brandies, 2014). Also see S. Ansky , The Enemy at His Pleasure: A Journey Through the Jewish Pale of Settlement During World War I, edited and translated by Joachim Neugroschel (Henry Holt, 2002). For a series of short memoirs covering many of the topics, one might have found in Ansky ’s uncompleted work, see ChaeRan Y. Freeze and Jay M. Harris, Everyday Jewish Life in Imperial Russia: Select Documents, 1772–1914 (Tauber Institute Series for the Study of European Jewry, 2013).
- 39.
These observations are taken from page 116 of Zborowski’s and Herzog’s Life Is with People: The Culture of the Shtetl, a book that we will discuss further below.
- 40.
Life Is with People, 252. That many Jewish husbands mistreated their wives is documented in Chapter 7.
- 41.
The literature on the Pale is absent accounts of how the key personnel and organizations of the different faith communities interacted and related to one another. Instead, the focus has been on how Jews related to the secular government and its officials.
- 42.
In her book on Spinoza , Rebecca Goldstein wrote “The path opened up to him by his excommunication was, in a certain sense, the same that those who were excommunicating him had followed: the path of actively and ardently refashioning identity. Only his would be a notion of personal identity that could not be fit into the terms of Jewish identity, nor of Christian identity, nor of any specific religious or ethnic or political identity. He was to define himself by his rational activity itself, and to try, in as cautious a way as possible, to help others seek this same identity as well.” Rebecca Goldstein’s Betraying Spinoza: The Renegade Jew Who Gave Us Modernity (Schocken, 2009).
- 43.
Mordechai Zalkin, “Social Status and Authority in 19th Century Lithuanian-Jewish Communities,” in Central and East European Jews at the Crossroads of Traditional Modernity, 182–184. The author, a scholar at Ben-Gurion University, criticizes the social system portrayals provided by Gershon Hundert and Jacob Katz as well as “certainly by post-Holocaust orthodox literature.” Lithuania was, of course, only a relatively modest part of the total Pale. The world of Hassidic communities farther south could have been quite different. Evidence indicates that the Pale was home to multiple Jewish worlds.
- 44.
Life Is with People, 221.
- 45.
Polonsky, 19.
- 46.
Existing studies suggest that the oral Torah members were a disproportionately large fraction of mid- and southern regions that were economically expanding, while those of the Torah of the Book were more likely to emigrate—and also more likely to live in areas free of pogroms . These are assumed correlations, not causes and their effects. Readers should note that this comparison is placed in a footnote rather than in the text because there is insufficient evidence to pursue the meanings associated with different wings of Judaism.
- 47.
On this and other challenges Jews and others encountered during later centuries, see Michael Goldfarb, Emancipation: How Liberating Jews from the Ghetto Led to Revolution and Renaissance (Simon & Schuster, 2009), 10.
- 48.
There Once Was a World, 119. Chapter 8 will reference how “state rabbis” may have strengthened the Tsarist government’s influence over local Jewish communities.
- 49.
Sinkoff, Out of the Shtetl, 146 ff.
- 50.
Sinkoff, 90. This was also the basis on which Thomas Jefferson and other Deists considered Judaism to be incompatible with the Enlightenment. See Garry Wills, Head and Heart: A History of Christianity in America (Penguin, 2007), 162–163. For a recent history of Hasidism , see David Assaf and others, Hasidism: A New History (Princeton, 2017).
- 51.
John Klier’s “Pogroms in the YIVO Encyclopedia,” http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Pogroms.
- 52.
There Once Was a World, 95.
- 53.
See her Chapter 11 titled “Commerce .” It covers shopkeepers, merchants, and middlemen, manufacturing as well as “help from emigrant kin.” Many residents of Eishyshok were kept alive by remittances sent from America. Eliach, 276 and 284.
- 54.
New York Times, November 14, 1982. Chaim Grade, Rabbis and Wives (Vintage Books, 1983).
- 55.
We will see in a later chapter that international Jewish service and welfare agencies supplemented if not replaced local community organizations helping to meet the needs of poorer Jews.
- 56.
Michael Stanislawski contributed this account of the Kahal in the invaluable YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe. Available online at http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/kahal#suggestedreading.
- 57.
Eliach, 41. Her long book does not include evidence to support the claim about “all attempts.” Even the very best of historians , including Eliach, fail to fully document their numerical claims.
- 58.
U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor, Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor (September 1907), 72. Deutsch (p. 152) also reported the Jewish Colonization Society’s 1906 data report on 507 localities.
- 59.
Alroey, 42. Many households were dependent on the remittances that fathers and husbands returned to their families. And as well be seen in the following chapter, a good number of these fathers and husbands simply abandoned their dependents back in the Pale.
- 60.
Mendel Sudarski available online at http://www.jewishgen.org/yizkor/lita/lit1614.html.
- 61.
Oppenheim, 36. Unfortunately, this source lacks supporting evidence that is not unusual in personal histories and memoirs.
- 62.
Dov Levin, The Litvaks: A Short History of the Jews in Lithuania (Yad Vashem, 2000), 29.
- 63.
http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/bund. Articles in encyclopedia tend to provide summary overviews minus supporting evidence and competing interpretations.
- 64.
- 65.
Immanuel Etkes contributed this YIVO article available online at http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/haskalah.
- 66.
For information and links to JewishGen’s Yizkor Book project, see Yizkor Book Project at http://www.jewishgen.org/Yizkor/.
- 67.
See, for example, www.rtrfoundation.org.
- 68.
I earlier referenced how mass history and mass humanities (mass data) might be used in mining these archival resources.
- 69.
Ruth Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture (Houghton Mifflin, 1946).
- 70.
During my four years with The Chinese University of Hong Kong during the 1960s, I became friends of the Institute. However, my work was centered on Hong Kong, not on developments and challenges within China or how refugees understood their former lives and communities.
- 71.
Mark Zborowski and Elizabeth Herzog, Life Is with People: The Culture of the Shtetl (Schocken, 1962). Zborowski was later exposed as a Soviet agent who likely had a hand in the murder of Trotsky.
- 72.
The 138 number refers to “informants” and is also likely to refer to different individual shtetlach. Ten informants were not from the Pale. They reported on the reports of their parents. The book’s preface describes the general methodology that also included a review of major academic publications and various other sources.
- 73.
Columbia University has placed another set of cultural and language records online (Digital Archive to the Language and Culture Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry) at https://dlc.library.columbia.edu/lcaaj. The Language and Culture Archive of Ashkenazic Jewry (LCAAJ) consists of 5755 hours of audio tape field interviews with Yiddish -speaking informants collected between 1959 and 1972 and ca. 100,000 pages of accompanying linguistic field notes. This is not an archive of the materials used in the Life is with People study.
- 74.
Shandler, 80. He also reported that “As of September 2012, a major database on dissertations and master’s theses in North America and Europe lists 377 citations for works that include the word shtetl in their texts,” 86. His “Notes” section beginning on page 139 provides many other potential sources that could be used for comparative research purposes.
- 75.
This work was led by Paul F. Lazarsfeld, founder of the Columbia University’s Bureau of Applied Social Research. I was a research associate and project director within the Bureau from 1955 to 1962.
- 76.
For an overview of the problems of interview studies in general, see Robert E. Mitchell, “Survey Materials Collected in the Developing Countries: Obstacles to Comparison,” in Stein Rokkan, ed., Comparative Research Across Cultures and Nations (Paris: Mouton Press, 1968), 210–238.
- 77.
Petrovsky-Shtern, 11.
- 78.
Deutsch, 266, footnote 527.
- 79.
Jeffrey Shandler, Shtetl: A Vernacular Intellectual History (Rutgers, 2014), 71.
- 80.
Both quotes were taken from Jeffrey Shandler, 54. Also see his page 23 for the different taxonomies used to describe Jewish settlements.
- 81.
For more on socially constructed vocabularies and assumptions, see Robert E. Mitchell, The Language of Economics: Socially Constructed Vocabularies and Assumptions (Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).
- 82.
In Central and East European Jews at the Crossroads of Tradition and Modernity, edited by Jurgita Šiaučiunaitė-Verbickiene and Larisa Lempertiene (Vilnius, 2006). She authored In a Maelstrom: A History of Russian-Jewish Prose, 1860–1940 (Central European University Press, 2008).
- 83.
Also in Central and East European Jews at the Crossroads of Tradition and Modernity.
- 84.
Joanna Lisek, “Between Mussarism and Yiddishism: Identity Problems in Hayim Grade’s Early Works,” in Central and East European Jews at the Crossroads of Tradition and Modernity. Among Grade’s many social novels are Rabbis and Wives as well as The Agunah and his The Yeshiva.
- 85.
Samuel Kassow, “The Shtetl in Interwar Poland,” in Steven T. Katz, ed., The Shtetl, New Evaluations (New York University Press, 2007), 128.
- 86.
Eva Hoffman, Shtetl: The History of a Small Town and an Extinguished World (London, 1999), 80.
- 87.
Of course I encounter the same challenges in tracking how genealogists excavated my maternal WASP ancestors.
- 88.
See earlier references to the author’s publications on settlement patterns and the closing of the American frontier.
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Mitchell, R.E. (2019). Ordered Life in Individual Shtetlach, Towns and Cities. In: Human Geographies Within the Pale of Settlement. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99145-0_5
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